Syntactic and Semantic Analysis of Clauses and Phrases
Finite Clauses
Clauses headed by a primary verb-form or an imperative or subjunctive; main clauses are always finite; subordinate clauses may be finite or non-finite.
Non-Finite Clauses
Subordinate clauses headed by: gerund participle (-ing), past participle (Born in NY, she was used to..), to infinitive (I want you to write it down)
Syntactic Categories
Phrases and clauses
Syntactic Functions
Subjects, complements, adjuncts
Clause Analysis
1. Dependency Analysis
- Clause pattern: only arguments (syntactic functions) SVO
- Clause structure: arguments+non-arguments SVO(A)
- Lexical pattern: only arguments (synct. funct+synct. categories)
- Argument structure: only arguments (synctactic fuctions+synctactic categories+semantic roles)
2. Constituent Analysis: Tree Analysis
Syntactic Functions
1. Subject
Basic position: before the verb/VP; case (only pronouns): He (nom) loves her (acc); subject-verb agreement (3rd person singular); subject auxiliary inversion in interrogatives
2. Complements
- Objects (Oi, Od): Oi precedes Od
- Predicative Complements (Co, Cs): PCs vs Objects: only PCs can have the form of AdjP and bare NP (without determiner), PCs cannot be the subject of a passive.
- Prepositional Complements (Obl, AdvC): In Obl, the head determines a specific prep-dummy prep; in AdvC, the verb determines the θ-role of the PC
- Clausal Complements (X-Comp, Cl Comp): X-Comp = catenative construction: non-finite clause functioning as internal complement of a verb. Cl Comp = internal complement of a verb which has the form of a subordinate clause. Types: THAT-Cl: that = complementizer/subordinator. WHETHER/IF Cl: not marked by the subject-auxiliary inversion. Wh-Cl. FOR Cl: for = complementizer, subordinator. It is Non-finite.
3. Adjuncts
- Manner: AdvP (Beat the eggs separately); PP (She carried the baby with great care); NP (Don’t eat that way)
- Instrument: PP (They ate with their fingers)
- Place: PP (I always have dinner in the kitchen)
- Time: PP (I spoke to her before the meeting); NP (I read it last week); AdvP (They finished it recently)
- Duration: PP (I stayed there for 3 weeks); NP (We argued about it all weekend); AdvP (I’ll stay here temporarily)
- Degree: AdvP (I absolutely agree with you); PP (I didn’t like it in the least)
- Frequency: AdvP (We periodically visit them); NP (She plays tennis every 2 days)
- Purpose: PP (He phoned them in order to…/ I did it for fun)
- Result: PP
- Concession: PP (Though an American citizen, he never….); AdvP
- Condition: PP (If you touch the wire, you will die)
Valency Alternations
1. Passive Alternation
SVO->SVObl. John killed the insect->The insect was killed by John. From active to passive voice. Changing the roles AGENT and PATIENT.
2. Dative Alternation
SVOObl->SVOO. John gave a book to Mary->John gave Mary a book. Change the roles rec-th.
3. Ergative Alternation
SVO->SV. The sun melted the ice->The ice melted.
Middle alternation vs. Ergative alternation: middle alternation does not denote an event, it always implies an implicit agent, there is a causing of the change of state. (Cristal vase shatter easily). In the Ergative construction the meaning may not be described as a passive (there’s no agent required) (The window broke/The ice melted/The balloon burst)
Semantic Roles
Semantic structure is the specification of the semantic relations that exist between a verb and its complements.
Semantic relations = semantic roles (we need to specify not only the number of arguments a verb requires but also their semantic roles)
Three levels of generality:
1. Verb-specific Semantic Roles: (the thief)killer killed (the couple)victim
2.Thematic relations θ-roles
3. Semantic Macroroles: (actor/undergoer)
2. theta roles are the formal device for representing syntactic argument structure. Types:
–Agent: animate and volitional initiator of events (The dog barked/John killed the dog)
–Causer: non-volitional entity which is the causer of an action (The rain ruined the crop/The rock broke the ..)
–Patient:entity acted upon,affected,created;or of which change of state is predicated (they kissed me/She went mad/He prepared a paella/I made her angry)
–Theme:change of location or possession, location specified or about which sth is being predicated (He gave me the key/She was happy/She fell of the balcony)
–Attribute: (She was happy/Kevin is my brother/SHe is in pain)
–Experiencer: see, hear,know,remember,love,hate..(John saw the boys)
–Stimulus: (The situation scares me/We know the reason)
–Recipient: receives or acquires sth (John gave Mary a book/Kim gave the key to Pat)
–Beneficiary: (JOhn boght me a present/John bought a present for me)
–Instrument: inanimate entity used by an Agent (JOhn opened the lock with a key/THe key opened the lock)
–Location:spatial and temporal: Source, Goal, Path
-State of affairs (SoA): situations, events (John saw Mary take the chocolate cake)
–Propositions (Props): (John thinks that Mary is coming to dinner)
CONSTITUENCY TESTS:
a) They proposed something useful. (SVO)
1. PRONOMINALISATION-> They proposed that/*They proposed that ueful.
2.Wh- QUESTION-> What did they proposed?-Something useful.
3.MOVEMENT-> SOmething useful they proppsed. (OSV)
b) We found this method useful. (SVOCo)
1.PRONOMINALISATION-> We found that useful./We found that-change in meaning
2. WH-QUESTION-> What did we find useful?-his method
3. MOVEMENT->His method we find useful.
c) He met the minister responsible (for this) )SVO)
1. PRONOMINALISATION->She met him/*She met him responsible.
2. WH- QUESTION-> Who did she meet?- the minister responsible (for that)
3. MOVEMENT: The minister responsible she met.
d)She held(=consider) the minister responsible (for this) (SVOCo)
1. PRONOMINALISATION-> She held him responsible.
2. WH- QUESTION-> Who did she hold responsible (for this)?- the minister
3. MOVEMENT-> The minister she held responsible.