Spanish Second Republic & Civil War: A Concise History
Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera
The Coup d’état
On September 13, 1923, Primo de Rivera launched a coup in Barcelona. King Alfonso XIII subsequently ordered him to form a new regime, thus ending the parliamentary system of the Restoration. Primo de Rivera justified the coup by citing the regime’s weakness, social conflicts, and national division. His rhetoric emphasized regeneration and popular support. The coup succeeded largely due to backing from the middle class, seeking order, and the Catalan bourgeoisie, aiming to dismantle the labor movement. The labor movement itself did not effectively resist, with the UGT and PSOE even collaborating with the regime.
The dictatorship had two phases:
- The Military Directory (1923-1925): Provisional, focused on restoring order.
- The Civil Directory (1925-1930): Institutionalized the regime.
The Military Directory
Composed solely of military personnel, the Directory’s initial measures included suspending the constitution, dissolving parliament, dismissing civil authorities, banning unions and parties, militarizing law enforcement, and employing violence against labor radicals. Municipalities were administered by the government, ending local autonomy. The Patriotic Union, a government party without a defined ideology, was created to garner support.
To address the colonial issue, Primo de Rivera ordered the Al Hoceima landing, achieving a military victory that bolstered his political standing.
The Civil Directory
Led by Primo de Rivera, this civilian government established the National Consultative Assembly, which lacked voting power. Economic policy involved significant state intervention in agriculture, trade, and industry through protectionism, subsidies, and public works projects. Joint committees were formed to manage labor-capital relations, but these measures worsened the existing deficit.
Opposition and Fall
Opposition came from various groups:
- Monarchists, initially supportive, later withdrew their backing due to their exclusion from power.
- Catalan left, initially supportive, later opposed the regime’s anti-Catalanist measures.
- Republicans, CNT, PCE, PSOE, and intellectuals like Ortega and Unamuno.
- University students.
In 1930, Alfonso XIII withdrew his support, leading to the appointment of interim governments under De Berenguer and Aznar to transition back to a constitutional regime, a process that proved too slow.
The Pact of San Sebastian and Monarchy’s Fall
The Pact of San Sebastian united republicans, socialists, and Catalanists to establish a republic. Their strategy involved a failed military uprising in Jaca and a media and political campaign against the monarchy. Municipal elections, preceding general elections, revealed strong republican sentiment in major cities, leading to widespread calls for a republic and Alfonso XIII’s exile.
The Second Republic (1931-1936)
Proclamation, Constitution, and Reform
The 1931 municipal elections resulted in republican victories in major cities, prompting Alfonso XIII’s exile and the formation of a provisional republican government. This government initiated reforms in land ownership and the army, and called for elections to a Constituent Assembly.
Constitution of 1931
Approved by the Constituent Cortes, the Constitution established a “republic of workers of all classes” and allowed for regional autonomy. It enshrined rights and freedoms, including education, employment, civil marriage, divorce, and private property, while also allowing for expropriation with compensation. It established a unicameral parliament with universal suffrage, a limited presidency, and an independent judiciary. The state was declared secular, separating church and state.
Parties and Unions
The period saw intense political debate and polarization. Left-wing parties included republicans, socialists (PSOE with social democratic and revolutionary factions), communists (PCE), and anarchists (CNT, FAI). Center-right included the Radical Party. The conservative right included CEDA. Monarchist groups and fascist groups like the Falange also emerged.
The Reformist Biennium (1931-1933)
President Azaña’s government implemented reforms targeting the army, religion (secularization), land ownership, and the state (autonomy for Catalonia and the Basque Country). Labor reforms improved working conditions, while educational reforms expanded access to education. These reforms led to polarization and radicalization, culminating in a failed coup attempt by General Sanjurjo and social unrest.
The Radical-CEDA Biennium (1933-1936)
The 1933 elections saw a center-right victory, leading to the dismantling of previous reforms. This sparked conflict with nationalist forces and radicalized the PSOE and UGT. CEDA’s entry into the government triggered the October 1934 Revolution, marked by a general strike and uprisings in Asturias and Catalonia. The revolution’s suppression increased CEDA’s influence, but ultimately led to new elections.
The 1936 Elections and the Popular Front
The 1936 elections saw the Popular Front (left-wing coalition) win a narrow victory. The Popular Front government resumed reforms, but social tensions and civil strife intensified. The assassination of Calvo Sotelo precipitated a military coup led by Franco, starting in Morocco and spreading to Spain, marking the beginning of the Civil War.
Civil War (1936-1939)
The Military Rebellion
The coup, starting in Morocco, succeeded in parts of inland Spain, Galicia, and Andalusia, but failed in industrialized areas. The insurgents comprised military personnel, landowners, businessmen, and Catholics, while the loyalists included workers, peasants, and the urban middle class.
War Development
- Early Stages (July-Dec. 1936): Franco’s forces advanced towards Madrid, which resisted with the help of militias and International Brigades.
- Battles around Madrid and the North (Dec. 1936-Oct. 1937): Franco’s attempts to encircle Madrid failed. He shifted focus to the north, culminating in the bombing of Guernica.
- Mediterranean Advance (Nov. 1937-June 1938): Franco reached the Mediterranean, dividing Republican territory. The Republican offensive at the Ebro was eventually repelled.
- Battle of the Ebro and War’s End: The Battle of the Ebro marked the Republic’s last major offensive. Franco’s subsequent Catalan offensive led to the fall of Barcelona. The Republic’s remaining territory fell quickly, with Franco declaring victory on April 1, 1939.
Political Developments
Republican Zone: The initial social revolution led by the CNT and UGT was curbed by Largo Caballero’s government, which aimed to rebuild state power and create a unified army. Internal conflicts and the influence of the Communists led to Negrín’s government, which pursued military resistance but also sought a negotiated settlement.
Rebel Zone: The military established a governing body, with Franco later becoming head of state and government. A single party, the Falange, was created, and the new state adopted a fascist model.
International Dimension and Consequences
The Civil War had international implications, with democracies and labor parties supporting the Republic, while conservatives and fascists backed Franco. The Non-Intervention Committee, despite its name, effectively aided Franco by preventing the Republic from acquiring arms. Germany and Italy provided substantial military support to Franco, while the Soviet Union aided the Republic. The war resulted in significant casualties, economic devastation, and mass displacement, with many Spaniards fleeing into exile.