Spanish Restoration Era: Cánovas System and 1876 Constitution
The Failure of Amadeo I and the First Republic (1873)
Following the death of General Prim (Amadeo I’s main defender), the monarchy failed, unable to cope with the growing strength of opposition to the regime. Amadeo of Savoy’s brief reign was marked by political and social instability, leading to his abdication in 1873. The Cortes then proclaimed the First Spanish Republic.
Divisions and Instability in the Republic
Francisco Pi i Maragall became president, but the Republicans were deeply divided into several trends:
- Conservative: Led by Emilio Castelar.
- Centrist: Led by Pi i Maragall.
- Federal/Closer to Socialism: Led by Orense.
In 1873, under Pi i Maragall, a federal project was presented. This project championed national sovereignty, separation of powers, federalism, the separation of Church and State (including finance), and decentralization, granting greater autonomy to the provinces.
Later, Nicolás Salmerón was named president. Facing the advancing Carlist front and the expansion of cantonalism, he used the Army and the Civil Guard to repress these movements. The Republic ended after the coup led by General Pavía, who dissolved the Cortes. General Serrano then presided over the government.
In late 1874, General Martínez-Campos staged a pronouncement, proclaiming Alfonso de Borbón as King. This concluded the revolutionary cycle begun in 1868, initiating the Restoration period.
The Political System of the Restoration (1875–1885)
With the return of the Bourbon monarchy in 1874, Alfonso XII established a new regime aspiring to achieve balance and conciliation between political forces.
The Cánovas System
Antonio Cánovas del Castillo was the main architect of the Restoration. He employed skillful political and propagandistic tactics to establish Alfonso XII on the throne. Cánovas aimed to end political exclusivism, positioning the King as a political referee who would not favor any single party, thereby avoiding military pronouncements as a means of achieving power.
Although Martínez-Campos made the initial pronouncement, Cánovas became President of the Government, establishing an assimilationist policy. The success of the system was largely due to society’s desire for peace.
Between 1875 and 1881, Cánovas focused on establishing the civil peace and social stability necessary to underpin the new political system. To achieve this, Cánovas limited individual rights and freedoms (academic freedom, association, expression, and press), restoring government censorship.
The 1876 Constitution
The 1876 Constitution was similar to the 1845 Constitution but designed to be more flexible and ambiguous. It was drafted by a commission of notables supervised by Cánovas. The constituent Cortes were elected by universal suffrage, though suffrage was later restricted during the administration of the new system.
The goal was to create a document accommodating the most important political trends, ensuring no single party felt compelled to impose its own constitution. Key features included:
- Shared Sovereignty: Sovereignty was shared between the King and the Cortes.
- Rights: It incorporated a bill of rights and religious tolerance (drawing from the 1869 Constitution).
- Royal Power (Drawing from 1845): The King was inviolable, held comprehensive legislative features (appointing senators, proposing legislation, summoning, and dissolving the Cortes), and shared national sovereignty with the Cortes.
- Cortes Structure: The Cortes were formed by the Congress of Deputies and the Senate.
The Practice of the System: Turnismo and Caciquismo
The theoretical scheme was seemingly irreproachable (the King appointed the government, supposedly according to public opinion), but the actual operation of the system deviated significantly from the theory. It relied on a two-party system, known as Turnismo:
- Conservative Party: Led by Cánovas.
- Liberal Party: Led by Sagasta.
These parties alternated peacefully in power, respecting the legislation passed by the other, and effectively excluding other political groups. The differences between them were small: the Liberals were generally more tolerant of labor movements, while the Conservatives favored the interests of the ruling classes.
Both parties encouraged Caciquismo (chieftaincy), which involved the manipulation of elections to ensure the desired party won the vote. This mechanism guaranteed the stability and continuity of the Restoration regime.