Spanish Poetry (1939-1970): From War to Renewal
ITEM 9: THE SPANISH POETRY FROM 1939 TO 1970
The Impact of War and Exile (1939-1944)
When the Spanish Civil War erupted, literature, particularly poetry, was flourishing. This period, often referred to as a second Golden Age, saw established authors from the Generations of ’98 and ’14 alongside the prominent Generation of ’27. A new generation, later known as the Generation of ’36, was also emerging.
Initially, the war transformed poetry into an “urgent art” characterized by exalted tones and epic-lyric expressions in defense of each side. However, the war’s end brought the tragic death of some poets, like Federico García Lorca, and forced others into exile (Juan Ramón Jiménez, León Felipe, Luis Cernuda, Jorge Guillén, etc.). Censorship became a harsh reality for those who remained.
Two Diverging Poetic Visions
In post-war Spain, a climate of enforced unity led to the rise of neo-classical poetry, adhering to traditional forms like the sonnet and focusing on conventional themes such as love, religion, and patriotism. This style, often termed “rooted poetry,” aimed to evoke a vision of imperial and religious Spain. Critics, like Dámaso Alonso, considered it hollow rhetoric, detached from the realities of the time and devoid of social criticism. This movement centered around magazines like El Escorial and Garcilaso, whose contributors, including José García Nieto, Luis Rosales, and Leopoldo Panero, identified as the creative youth.
In contrast, another group reacted against this formalism, embracing a direct and everyday language that challenged the established boundaries of “poetic language.” They favored free verse and explored themes of existential malaise and nascent social awareness. Religious themes took on an existential tone, questioning the silence of God in the face of human suffering. Victoriano Cremer’s proclamation, “Fewer and more screams perfection,” encapsulated this sentiment. This group, associated with “uprooted poetry,” coalesced around provincial magazines like León’s Espadaña and included authors like Victoriano and Eugenio de Nora.
Despite these distinct classifications, the reality was more fluid, with poets often contributing to both types of publications. Collections like the Adonais Prize played a crucial role in bridging these divides, similar to the Nadal Prize for novels.
Landmark Publications of 1944
In 1944, two significant works emerged from established poets who remained in Spain: Dámaso Alonso’s Hijos de la ira (Children of Wrath) and Vicente Aleixandre’s Sombra del paraíso (Shadow of Paradise). These publications, coinciding with the first issue of Espadaña, would profoundly influence the trajectory of Spanish poetry in the following years.
The Rise of Social Poetry (1950s)
The 1950s witnessed the emergence of social poetry, a movement deeply engaged with the socio-political realities of Spain. This poetry aimed to expose injustices, advocate for social transformation, and address the concerns of the marginalized masses. It prioritized message over aesthetics, as exemplified by Gabriel Celaya’s famous line, “Poetry is a weapon loaded with the future.”
Themes and Aesthetics of Social Poetry
Social poetry often explored themes related to Spain’s history, landscape, people, myths, the Civil War and its aftermath, and the lack of freedom, alienation, and injustice prevalent in society. It expressed a yearning for a better world and reflected on the role of poetry itself as a tool for social change.
The aesthetics of social poetry were deliberately simple and unadorned, drawing inspiration from poets like Rafael Alberti, Pablo Neruda, and León Felipe. Pure aestheticism was deemed inappropriate in the face of historical challenges. Repetition of lexical and syntactic patterns was common, and free verse and assonance replaced more elaborate metrical structures.
The tone was often narrative, collective, and exhortatory, employing imperatives, the second person, vocatives, questions, and the first-person plural.
Key Figures and Publications
The year 1955 marked a pivotal moment with the publication of Gabriel Celaya’s Cantos iberos (Iberian Songs) and Blas de Otero’s Pido la paz y la palabra (I Ask for Peace and the Word). Other prominent figures associated with social poetry include Victoriano Crémer, José Hierro, and Angela Figuera Aymerich. While Hierro’s work focused on personal experiences, its collective implications aligned with the broader social concerns of the movement.
Blas de Otero: A Poetic Journey
Blas de Otero’s poetic trajectory offers a compelling overview of the evolution of Spanish poetry from the Civil War onwards. His early work, characterized by religious and existential doubts expressed in a tormented yet classical style, exemplified the “uprooted” poetry. Later, he addressed the “vast majority” in works like Pido la paz y la palabra and En castellano, adopting a tone of testimony and denunciation through free verse and powerful imagery. His final stage focused on poetic renewal while maintaining his commitment to social and political critique.
Shifting Focus: The 1960s
The 1960s brought significant social and economic changes to Spain, including industrial development, the rise of tourism, and a gradual political opening. Disillusionment with the perceived lack of tangible results from social poetry, coupled with growing awareness of the excesses of Stalinism, led to a shift in poetic focus.
The “Generation of 50” and the Search for a New Language
This period, often seen as an evolution of the previous one, is frequently referred to as the “Generation of 50.” Poets like Gabriel Celaya, Blas de Otero, and José Hierro continued to evolve, demonstrating the fluidity of these generational labels. The emphasis shifted towards a renewed exploration of poetic language and a refined sense of style. Language was meticulously crafted, maintaining a conversational and concise tone. Free verse and the hendecasyllable dominated, while traditional rhyme schemes diminished.
From Political Efficacy to Personal Experience
The belief in the political power of poetry waned, replaced by a focus on individual experience as a means of understanding the world. Themes became more intimate, exploring childhood memories, lost youth, friendship, love, and family. While a critical attitude towards social and political issues persisted, the gravity of these concerns was often tempered with humor, irony, or cynicism.
Key Figures of the 1960s
Notable poets of this era include Angel González (Palabra sobre palabra – Word on Word), Claudio Rodríguez (Don de la ebriedad – Gift of Drunkenness), José Ángel Valente, and the Barcelona group, featuring Jaime Gil de Biedma, Carlos Barral, and José Agustín Goytisolo. All three of the aforementioned poets were recipients of the Adonais Prize.
The “Novísimos” and Beyond: The 1970s
The 1970s began with the publication of Josep Maria Castellet’s influential anthology, Nueve novísimos poetas españoles (Nine Very New Spanish Poets). The term “novísimos” played on the phonetic similarity to “new” or “latest.” The selection of poets, including Pere Gimferrer, Ana María Moix, Vicente Molina Foix, Manuel Vázquez Montalbán, Antonio Martínez Sarrión, José María Álvarez, Félix de Azúa, Guillermo Carnero, and Leopoldo María Panero, was somewhat arbitrary, prioritizing a desire for innovation and a break from established norms. Some of these poets had yet to publish a collection before their inclusion in the anthology. Despite this, the anthology proved successful, although some, like Vázquez Montalbán, later shifted their focus to other genres.
A Proliferation of Anthologies and the Challenge of Perspective
The 1970s saw a surge in anthologies, inspired by the success of Castellet’s compilation. However, the lack of historical perspective makes it challenging to categorize poetic groups and definitively identify the enduring voices of this era. Only time will tell which of these poets will leave a lasting mark on Spanish literature.