Spanish Literature: Modernism, Generation of ’98, and the Novecento Movement
Spanish Literature: Modernism, Generation of ’98, and the Novecento
Ruben Dario (1867-1916)
The Nicaraguan poet, Ruben Dario, is considered the quintessential modernist poet, thanks to his book “Azul” (1888). This book, containing nine stories and several poems, exhibits exquisite stylistic rigor and a mysterious, dreamlike atmosphere. In “Profane Prose” (1896), Dario attempts to capture total harmony through poetry. His later work, “Songs of Life and Hope, Cinemas and Other Poems” (1905), expresses a deep anxiety concerning the ideological conflicts of his time. Dominant themes in his poetry include:
- Eroticism expressed through symbols like princes and centaurs.
- Social and political concerns related to Hispanic and American identity.
- A devotion to art, celebrated in many of his poems.
Generation of ’98
This group of writers, motivated by a desire for renewal in Spanish life, undertook a critical analysis of the nation’s circumstances. Key members include Miguel de Unamuno, Jose Martinez Ruiz (Azorin), Pio Baroja, Ramiro de Maeztu, Antonio Machado, and Ramon del Valle Inclan. While not entirely separate from Modernism, the Generation of ’98 distinguished itself through its focus on existential and patriotic themes, and a more sober and less flamboyant aesthetic.
Antonio Machado (1875-1939)
Machado’s poetry exhibits a clear evolutionary process:
- Stage I: Modernist poetry with symbolism, free verse, and assonance, seen in “Solitudes” (1903).
- Stage II: A more restrained and intimate style expressing love for the Castilian landscape, found in “Solitudes, Galleries and Other Poems” (1907).
- Stage III: Aligning with the Generation of ’98, Machado identifies with Castile, and his poetry becomes more objective in “Campos de Castilla” (1912).
- Stage IV: Characterized by short, seemingly simple poems with folk influences and intimate philosophical reflections, collected in “New Songs” (1924) and “Complete Poems”.
Key themes in Machado’s poetry include:
- Privacy: The search for self through “the galleries of the soul.”
- Dramatic Realism: Reflecting the realities of life.
- Tragic Humanism: Contrasting the need for connection with the desire for solitude.
- Poetic Communitarianism: A desire for connection linked to the turbulent historical context.
Miguel de Unamuno (1864-1936)
Unamuno’s notable works include “Lyric Sonnets Rosary,” “The Christ of Velasquez,” and “Songbook.” His poetry expresses religious and political turmoil, pure love, and romantic visions of Castile and Spain. The roughness of his verse has sometimes overshadowed his lyrical qualities.
The Novecento Movement
Around 1910, a new group of writers emerged, marking a shift from the Generation of ’98 and Modernism towards the avant-garde. Compared to the Generation of ’98, the Novecento exhibited less pessimism and protest, and a more serene, intellectual, and European perspective on national issues. In contrast to Modernism, it moved away from decorative flourishes towards a more intimate, lean, and intellectually concentrated style of poetry.
Juan Ramon Jimenez (1881-1958)
Jimenez’s work can be divided into several stages:
- First Phase (until 1915):
- A) Becquerian romanticism with themes of mystery, night, and nature, using simple meters like octosyllabic verse and romance. Works include “Nympheas” (1900), “Souls of Violet” (1900), and “Arias Tristes” (1908).
- B) Intimate modernism with rich colors, adjectives, and eleven-syllable Alexandrine meter, as seen in “Elejias” (1908).
- Second Stage: “Naked” poetry, beginning with “The Diary of a Newly Married Poet” (1916). This stage abandons modernist ornamentation for a sober and bare expression of emotion. Poems are brief, mostly free verse, with no rhyme or assonance. Notable works include “Eternity” (1918), “Stone and Sky” (1919), and “Beauty” (1923).
- Third Stage: Transcendent poetry, characterized by a return to simplicity and the pursuit of transcendent life. This stage features mystical overtones, identifying beauty and God. Key works include “On the Other Side,” “God Desired and Desiring,” and “Animal Background.”