Spanish Literature: Modernism, Generation of ’98, and Beyond
Modernism
Modern Features:
- Literature is seen as a pursuit of beauty above all. It emphasizes musicality and rhythm, leading to a renewal of metrical forms.
- Authors seek escape from reality, exploring scenarios remote in time and space. They delve into the past and prefer urban and cosmopolitan settings.
- Themes often express feelings of melancholy.
- Symbolic elements are prominent, such as the swan, which became a symbol of modernist aesthetics.
The Generation of ’98
This group of authors, born in the late nineteenth century, addressed key themes: the decline of Spain and existentialism (Miguel de Unamuno, Pío Baroja, etc.). Their writings reflect the influence of contemporary thought.
Rubén Darío
Nicaraguan poet (1867-1916), the leading figure of Modernism.
- Azul and Profane Prose exemplify modernist aesthetics.
- Songs of Life and Hope showcase intimate and reflective poetry.
Authors and Works
- The Sonatas by Ramón María del Valle-Inclán
- Lo Fatal by Rubén Darío
- The Will and Doña Inés by José Martínez Ruiz (Azorín)
- The Vested Interests and The Unloved by Jacinto Benavente
Miguel de Unamuno (1864-1936)
Born in Bilbao, he lived in Salamanca, where he was a university professor. He cultivated various literary genres, excelling in essays and novels (San Manuel Bueno, Martyr and Mist).
Pío Baroja (1872-1956)
Born in San Sebastián, he studied medicine in Madrid but dedicated himself to literature (The Concerns of Shanti Andía, Zalacaín the Adventurer, and The Tree of Knowledge).
Antonio Machado (1875-1939)
Born in Seville, his family moved to Madrid when he was eight. He married Leonor Izquierdo in 1909. After her death in 1912, he moved to Baeza, where he met Pilar Valderrama. He went into exile in France in 1939 and died that same year in Collioure.
Poetry of the Essence: His poetry is characterized by a search for the essential, expressed through symbols like the afternoon, the road, or the well, imbued with multiple meanings. Rhythm and musicality are also central.
His major works include Solitudes and Fields of Castile.
Solitudes: Expresses intimate feelings and emotions in a melancholic tone, showing the influence of modernist aesthetics (nostalgia for the past).
Fields of Castile: The poet takes up themes characteristic of the Generation of ’98, such as the description of the Castilian landscape.
Ramón María del Valle-Inclán (1866-1936)
Born in Villanueva de Arosa (Pontevedra). His works include The Sonatas, Tirano Banderas, Barbaric Comedy, Divinas Palabras, and Bohemian Lights.
The Second Republic and the Civil War
During the dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera (1923), opposition to the regime grew. Societal rejection forced the dictator to resign in 1930. The Second Republic was proclaimed in April 1931. The first two years saw a reform program, but tensions between political groups hindered progress. In 1936, a coup led by Generals Sanjurjo, Mola, and Franco initiated the Civil War (1936-1939).
European Literary Renewal: The Avant-garde
These movements rejected traditional art forms and advocated experimentation, adopting new themes and forms of expression (“isms”).
- Creationism: Of Hispanic origin, it sought to create reality within the work itself, using linguistic games.
- Surrealism: Of French origin, it aimed to express the emotions and thoughts of the subconscious.
The New Novel of the Century
- Marcel Proust (1871-1922), author of In Search of Lost Time, explored the psychology of high-society characters.
- Franz Kafka (1883-1924) expressed human anguish in The Metamorphosis and The Trial.
- James Joyce (1882-1941) wrote Ulysses, inspired by the Odyssey.
Noucentisme
This group of writers, also known as the Generation of 1914, was characterized by intellectualism, a European outlook, and the pursuit of pure art. Juan Ramón Jiménez is a key representative.
Noucentista Novel
Two main features: lyrical descriptive passages and the presence of:
- Gabriel Miró, author of The Leper Bishop and Our Father, Saint Daniel.
- Ramón Pérez de Ayala, author of Belarmino and Apolonio and Tiger Juan.
Noucentista Essay
- José Ortega y Gasset, author of The Dehumanization of Art.
The Generation of ’27
This group of writers, named for a 1927 meeting commemorating the tercentenary of Luis de Góngora’s death, had a significant impact, particularly in poetry.
- Rafael Alberti (1902-1999), author of Sailor Ashore and Concerning the Angels.
- Jorge Guillén (1893-1984), author of Cántico, Clamor, and Homenaje.
Juan Ramón Jiménez (1881-1958)
Born in Huelva, he went to America in 1916 to marry Zenobia Camprubí but returned due to the outbreak of the Civil War.
- Sensitive Stage: Characterized by the influence of Modernism, with emphasis on the sound of the verse and the presence of modernist symbols and motifs.
- Intellectual Stage: Beginning in 1916, it is marked by formal simplicity and explores themes like loneliness.
- True Stage: This stage seeks transcendence through poetic perfection and purification, with a focus on the search for God.
Federico García Lorca (1898-1936)
Born in Fuente Vaqueros (Granada), he moved to the Residencia de Estudiantes in Madrid in 1919. In 1929, he traveled to New York and wrote poems. He was shot and killed in Víznar (Granada) in 1936.
Poetry:
- 1st Stage: Gypsy Ballads: Composed poems expressing recurring themes in his work: desire, rebellion, death. Works include Poema del cante jondo, Romancero Gitano, and The Ballad of the Death of Antonio Camborio.
- 2nd Stage: Poet in New York: Influenced by avant-garde movements, reflecting hunger and misery, using free verse and surrealist imagery.