Spanish Literary Movements: Generation of ’98 and Modernism

Posted on Oct 15, 2025 in English Studies

The Generation of ’98

The Generation of ’98 was a group of writers characterized by the central theme of Spain and a natural, simple style that prioritized content over form. Key members included the Group of Three (Azorín, Baroja, and Maeztu), Unamuno, Valle-Inclán, and Antonio Machado. The term “Group of ’98” or simply “’98” is also commonly used.

Stages of the Generation of ’98

  • Youth of ’98: The Group of Three published a manifesto seeking to change the Spanish situation.
  • Activism of the Group of Three: This phase was ultimately unsuccessful.
  • Maturity and Dissolution: Each author pursued a personal journey, though they maintained more or less close relationships.

Key Characteristics

  • Existential, philosophical, and religious concerns.
  • The Theme of Spain: A subjective view aimed at capturing the “sleeping soul” of Spain—the essential spirit found in the landscape, towns, and people, particularly Castile.
  • Focus on history and intrahistory (the history of everyday life).
  • Renewal of Literary Language: Emphasis on accuracy, meaningful expression of ideas, short sentences, and concise paragraphs.

The Generation of ’98 and the Spanish Novel

These renovators were new novelists inspired by modern trends. They focused on narrative, stylistic, and technical renewal. They were less interested in portraying external reality than in the implications of reality within the consciousness of the characters. Descriptions of environments and landscapes often employed an impressionistic style.

Prominent Novelists and Works

  • Miguel de Unamuno: Focused on conflicting existential thought. His style was dry, precise, fast, and agile, with minimal action. Key works include Peace in War, Mist (Niebla), and San Manuel Bueno, Martyr. Themes often revolve around reason and faith.
  • Azorín: Blended novels and essays, often addressing themes like melancholy and the passage of time. His style is precise, characterized by concise sentences and lexical richness. Key work: The Will (La Voluntad).
  • Pío Baroja: Known for a negative vision of society.
    Baroja’s Narrative Features:
    • Open structure and varied settings.
    • Contemporary or near-contemporary time periods.
    • Incorporation of autobiographical experiences.
    • Dynamic, personal, and vital style.
    • Protagonists typically fall into two types: men of action and contemplative men.
  • Valle-Inclán: Notable works include Sonatas and Tirano Banderas.

Characteristics of Modernism

  • Aesthetic Principle: Beauty is a vital aesthetic principle, aiming to transform life into art.
  • Sensory Literature: Creation of literature rich in sensory detail, color, and onomatopoeia.
  • Poetic Renewal: Rescued meters such as the Alexandrine or the hendecasyllable.
  • Imagery: The strange is considered beautiful; extensive use of images, metaphors, and symbols.
  • Existential Feeling: A blend of melancholy and vitalism, often expressing existential angst.
  • Appreciation of the Irrational: Delight in the sentimental and the irrational, often leading to a crepuscular (twilight) aesthetic, sometimes perceived as wasteful or decadent, yet coupled with a strong vitalism.
  • Escapism: Artistic escape in both space and time.
  • Cosmopolitanism and Localism: Writers were often polyglots and “citizens of the world” (cosmopolitan), yet simultaneously focused on the parochial and authentic (localism).

Modernism and Spanish Poetry

The early twentieth century saw a search for a new poetic expression that resulted in Modernism. Renovating writers adopted the term “modern,” often used contemptuously by those who rejected these developments. The pioneers of Modernism were Spanish poets.

Key Modernist Poets

  • Rubén Darío: Considered the foremost example of Modernism.
    Stages of Darío’s Work:
    1. Initial Period: Characterized by refined and elusive themes (e.g., Blue…, 1888; Profane Prose, 1896).
    2. Second Stage: More intimate, anguished, and reflective depth (e.g., Songs of Life and Hope, 1905; The Wandering Song, 1907).
  • Other Modernist Authors: Eduardo Marquina, Francisco Villaespesa, and Manuel Machado.

Transition from Modernism: Antonio Machado

Antonio Machado’s work shows a transition away from pure Modernism:

  • First Stage (Modernist Influence): Strongly influenced by Bécquer and Symbolism (e.g., Solitudes). His poetry is an intimate monologue, expressing what is essential, using simple language and varied metrics.
  • Second Stage: Campos de Castilla (Fields of Castile), a broad collection of poems reflecting the landscape and people of Soria.