Spanish History: Regeneration, Republic, and Civil War

Posted on Oct 22, 2024 in History

Regeneration and Maurismo (1903-1909)

This marked the second Regenerationist attempt (the first being the Polavieja-Silvela government of 1899-1900), led by the Conservatives under Maura. Maura’s leadership represented an authoritarian reformism. However, his initial government (1903-1904 and 1907) failed to fully implement its agenda:

  • Local administration reform faced opposition from Liberals and Republicans, who resisted replacing universal suffrage with a corporate system (voting by trade).
  • The 1907 electoral law did not prevent the manipulation of election results.

Growing Opposition and Political Developments

The crisis of 1898 fueled Catalan political growth. The Regionalist League gained electoral success in Barcelona, advocating for Catalan autonomy and Spanish government reform. Its rival, Alejandro Lerroux’s Radical Republican Party, gained popular support by attacking the League’s conservative and allegedly separatist nature.

The PSOE and UGT consolidated their influence in the Basque Country, Asturias, and Madrid. From 1907, they tactically aligned with Republicans, Socialists, and even Liberals to oppose Maura’s right-wing policies. In 1909, the Republican-Socialist coalition achieved success in municipal elections.

Anarchism remained fragmented, with continued attacks and bombings. Unionism was reorganized, leading to significant mobilizations (e.g., the 1902 Barcelona general strike) and the creation of the CNT in 1910.

The Crisis of 1917

Several factors converged to create a major crisis in 1917:

  • World War I’s nearing end exacerbated economic hardship and social unrest, impacting the poorest.
  • Army disputes arose between African and Peninsular officers. The former enjoyed royal favor and swift promotions, while the latter faced poor conditions and lack of recognition. This led to the creation of Juntas de Defensa.
  • Lawmakers protested against Eduardo Dato’s conservative policies. A Parliamentary Assembly in Barcelona, attended by Liberals, Regionalists, Republicans, and Socialists, called for a constituent assembly.

In August 1917, the UGT and CNT organized Spain’s first general strike, which ultimately failed.

Primo de Rivera’s Economic Policy

Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship amplified existing trends in early 20th-century Spanish capitalism:

  1. Economic nationalism
  2. Monopolies
  3. Financial practices
  4. State intervention
  5. Concentration of economic power

This included creating a state monopoly on petroleum (CAMPSA), granting monopolies on tobacco and telephones, and continuing protectionist policies. The financial oligarchy’s power grew, and banks expanded. Infrastructure projects (roads, railways, hydraulic plan) were undertaken. Public education received investment, leading to more schools, higher teacher salaries, and decreased illiteracy, though academic freedom was limited.

The Constitution of 1931

Following the June 1931 Constituent Cortes elections, which saw a Republican-Socialist coalition victory, a new Constitution was adopted in December 1931. Its key features included:

  • Popular sovereignty, defining Spain as a “democratic republic of workers of all kinds.”
  • Universal male and female suffrage.
  • Extensive bill of rights and freedoms, including civil rights, divorce, equal rights for children, and the right to education.
  • Unicameral legislature (Cortes).
  • Executive power shared between a President with limited powers and a Prime Minister appointed by the President and approved by the Cortes.
  • Independent judiciary.
  • Regional autonomy.
  • Secular state, separating church and state, eliminating clergy budgets, and prohibiting religious education.

Agrarian Reform in the Second Republic

In the 1930s, agriculture remained significant. Of 23 million inhabitants, 3.8 million worked in agriculture (2 million laborers, 750,000 tenants/sharecroppers, and 1 million small/medium landowners). Large estates, particularly in the south, controlled significant land. The 1932 agrarian reform law aimed to address land issues, but its impact was limited due to inefficiency, bureaucracy, and compensation costs. It led to right-wing reunification and alienated some farmers from the Republic. Peasant unrest resulted in incidents like Casas Viejas, Castilblanco, and Arnedo. In Catalonia, conflicts arose between landlords and tenant farmers (rabassaires), leading to legislation that was later challenged.

Primo de Rivera’s Coup (1923)

Causes

  • The Annual disaster’s impact: The army demanded more resources, and some officers joined the government’s refusal to increase war budgets. The dissolution of the Juntas in 1922 also fueled discontent.
  • The rise of nationalisms in Catalonia and the Basque Country.
  • Growing military involvement in politics.
  • Division of Liberal and Conservative parties and the rise of Socialists and Republicans.
  • Social unrest and middle-class disillusionment with political corruption, rising prices, and the Moroccan question.

The Coup

On September 13, 1923, General Miguel Primo de Rivera declared a state of war and demanded power be transferred to the military. Alfonso XIII entrusted him with forming a new government. This marked the end of the Restoration system. The coup had the support of employers’ organizations and the far right, while many monarchist parties remained passive. Although presented as temporary, the dictatorship aimed to establish a new political system inspired by Italian Fascism.

The October Revolution (1934)

Catalonia: The PSOE, UGT, Republican Left, Unió de Rabassaires, and other labor organizations attempted a general strike with the Generalitat’s approval. Lacking mass syndicalist support, resistance was minimal. President Lluís Companys proclaimed the “Estat Català” within a Spanish Federal Republic. General Batet’s troops quickly regained control, arresting the Generalitat government and Azaña. Caballero and other Strike Committee members were arrested in Madrid.

Asturias: The labor movement, including Anarchists, Communists, and Socialists, occupied the mining region, seizing weapons. They proclaimed a Socialist Revolution, establishing workers’ councils. The army crushed the movement on October 17 after fierce resistance.

Franco’s Rise to Power

Toward Single Command

Franco’s Nationalist faction gained strength, his army marching on Madrid and monopolizing Fascist support. On October 1, 1936, Franco was appointed Generalísimo and Head of the Spanish State, assuming all state power. On April 1, 1937, he became head of the new single party, FET y de las JONS, integrating all supporting political groups. Military control was ensured by all officers joining the party. This unification faced opposition from some Carlists and Falangists.

The Burgos Government

Franco’s first government was formed on January 30, 1938. Key legislation included:

  • March 1938 labor charter, establishing vertical syndicalism.
  • Press and print laws.
  • Pro-Church legislation, repealing civil marriage and divorce laws.
  • Political Responsibilities Law, empowering mixed courts to seize property from those linked to leftist parties.

Consequences of the Civil War

The war had devastating consequences:

  • Demographic losses: Estimated at over one million, including battlefield deaths, executions, and deaths from disease and malnutrition.
  • Exile: A significant exodus of intellectuals, scientists, and others, primarily to France and Mexico.
  • Repression: Including the maquis (anti-Franco guerrillas).
  • Economic devastation: Population decline, loss of gold reserves, war expenses, and destruction of infrastructure.

Negrín’s Thirteen Points

In 1938, facing dwindling resistance, Negrín, as Minister of Defence, formed a new government including the CNT. To gain international support and as an indirect offer to end the war, he presented a thirteen-point program. It received little support, as Franco demanded unconditional surrender, and France and Britain pursued appeasement with Hitler. Stalin, having supported Popular Fronts against German expansion, abandoned this policy after the Munich Pact. The Republic’s time was running out.

Internationalization of the Conflict

Fascist powers (Germany, Italy, and Portugal) provided systematic support to the rebels. By late July, they sent planes and established an airlift for colonial troops. France initiated non-intervention talks, joined by Britain, Germany, Italy, Portugal, the USSR, and others. France closed its border, and Britain imposed an embargo on the Republic. Germany and Italy increased aid. Unable to purchase arms in Europe, the Republic turned to the USSR, receiving arms and military advisors in exchange for gold reserves. International Brigades volunteers also joined the Republican side. German involvement was crucial in aviation, artillery, tanks, and communications. Italian participation was larger but less strategically significant.