Spanish History: Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship

Posted on Dec 10, 2024 in History

Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship in Spain: 1923-1930

On September 13, 1923, Miguel Primo de Rivera staged a coup, declaring a state of war. He published a manifesto stating the reasons for the rebellion and was immediately supported by King Alfonso XIII, who commissioned him to form a government, making him directly responsible for the dictatorship. The dictatorship of Primo de Rivera was the political regime that existed in Spain from September 1923 until he resigned on January 28, 1930. He was replaced by the so-called soft dictatorship of General Dámaso Berenguer.

The Failure of the Parliamentary Monarchy

The triple crisis of 1917 left the Cánovas system mortally wounded. The years prior to the dictatorship, between 1918 and 1923, were very difficult years of continuing crisis due to several simultaneous problems:

• The decomposition of the Restoration system.
• The economic crisis.
• The social problem.
• The radicalization of nationalism.
• The military disaster in Morocco.

The International Context

The dictatorship of Primo de Rivera coincided with the moral and psychological crisis that followed the outcome of World War I. One of the political movements that emerged with force was fascism, which greatly influenced the regime of Primo de Rivera.

The Coup and its Social Bases

Primo de Rivera revolted on September 12, 1923. The rebels declared a state of war and the dissolution of parliament. The 1876 Constitution was replaced by a military dictatorship. On September 14, the legitimate government asked the king for Primo de Rivera’s dismissal, but the monarch let hours pass until finally he was openly in favor of the coup.

The Figure of Primo de Rivera

Primo de Rivera had typically traditional military values. His motto was “Homeland, Religion, and Monarchy.” He thought that good will was enough to govern a country. The figure of Primo de Rivera is characterized by good intentions but a lack of intellectual culture and political education. He is characterized by acting first and making the program later. It can be said it was a dictatorship of regeneration. The idea of Primo de Rivera was not only to improve the lives and culture of the people but to win their support and love through direct contact, without intermediaries.

Objectives

The objectives of the coup were:

• Breaking the parliamentary system.
• Ensuring public order and preventing social disorder.
• Solving the problem in Morocco.

Social Support for the Coup

There was scarcely any opposition to the coup. Socialists offered no resistance and even collaborated with the regime. Anarchists and communists were the only ones opposed. It is noted that the old power bloc supported the coup, but with qualifications. Landowners and members of the industrial and financial bourgeoisie received it with jubilation. The church did not want to tie its fortunes to the dictator. In the middle classes, certain critical attitudes would soon appear among urban dwellers. The only clear opponents were members of the Communist Party and the anarchists of the CNT.

Development: Political and Economic Changes

The Political Phases of the Dictatorship

The Military Directory (1923-1925)

The dictatorship was presented as an interim solution. It was an authoritarian dictatorship whose first steps were:

• The suspension of the Constitution.
• The dissolution of the Parliament and the establishment of a military board of nine members.
• Replacement of the civil governors of provinces by military governors.
• Removal of the municipalities, which were replaced by boards of representatives.

The new system had four lines of action against the old politics:

1. The elimination of despotism.
2. The assurance of public order.
3. The assertion of a Spanish state nationalism against peripheral nationalism.
4. The solution of the problem in Morocco.

The Civil Directory (1925-1930)

The Civil Directory was an attempt to perpetuate the dictatorship in time. It replaced the Military Directory with a civilian government. Primo de Rivera wanted to stay in power. The policy proposals that Primo de Rivera and the Civil Directory attempted ended in failure. In 1926, the dictator proposed the creation of a National Consultative Assembly. The mission of this assembly would be to draw up a new constitution to replace the 1876 one. Political parties, both dynastic and Republicans, did not support the political agendas of Primo de Rivera. Relations with the military deteriorated because the general wanted to impose on the Artillery Corps that their promotions be performed not by seniority but on merit and capabilities. Since then, the army was opposed to the dictator and approached Republican ideas.

Economic and Social Policy

Economic Interventionism

Among the highlights of the regime’s economic policy are the achievements carried out by Minister Calvo Sotelo. Taking advantage of favorable economic conditions (the roaring twenties), the dictatorship helped strengthen industrial growth, consolidating capitalism in Spain. With these autarkic theses, self-sufficiency was intended, but decisive action from the state in the economy was needed to meet the backlog of private investment. To ensure self-sufficiency, markets, prices, and production were regulated through the National Economic Council. As a major economic engine, infrastructure was built through the National Infrastructure Plan. The construction of roads was planned, and railways were improved. An interesting water policy was also developed, and river basins were created to prevent landowners from controlling irrigation. These public works were financed with the help of banks and the issuance of public debt bonds. To counteract the serious debt resulting from this, the sale of state monopolies was resorted to, linked economically to business friends of the dictator. The most important were CAMPSA, which dealt with the distribution and sale of oil, and Telefónica, as well as tobacco, lotteries, and certain banks. Decrees were promulgated against the Concealment of Wealth Planning, on the Industrial Contribution, and the Register of Territorial Farm Lease to combat tax evasion. This led to an increase in national income and industrial production but dramatically worsened the situation of public finances, with more and more debt. The debt would be carried over beyond the dictatorship. The most profitable from the dictatorship’s economic policy were the wealthy. At this stage, we are witnessing the golden age of private banking. The state borrowed too much, and even though workers improved their standard of living, laborers continued to be in miserable conditions.

Social Policy

The most significant feature of the twenties was the relative calm, a period of population growth due to improved sanitary conditions, which resulted in lower mortality, particularly among children. Outward migration decreased. The government also intervened in relations between employers and employees. The state controlled and intervened through the National Corporate Organization. This policy had the support and collaboration of businesses and the UGT. The 1926 Labor Code governed contracts, employment tribunals, and accident insurance. All this was accompanied by an increase in Social Security benefits and subsidies to large families or for maternity. At the end of 1926, the Corporate State and joint committees were created to resolve disputes between employers and workers. Social policy failed in the countryside, where there was open hostility from landowners to establishing joint committees.

The Fall of the Dictatorship and the Monarchy

The Opposition to the Dictatorship

In mid-1928, the decline of the dictatorship became apparent due to several factors:

• The increasing opposition to the regime.
• Growing discontent in the military sector.
• The increasing difficulties of the state budget.
• The reappearance of social conflicts with strike action led by the Socialists.

Suffering from a serious illness, Primo de Rivera presented his resignation to King Alfonso XIII on January 27, 1930. Primo de Rivera was exiled to Paris, where he died two months later. The political situation worsened after 1929 with the global economic crisis. The crisis led to the withdrawal of a lot of capital from abroad invested in Spain. To this, we must add the continued existence of an unbalanced trade balance and a Treasury deficit due to increased public spending. The peseta, which had begun a reassessment cycle in 1924, began to lose value from 1927. The failure of this policy led to the resignation of Calvo Sotelo on January 20, 1930. During the period of relative economic prosperity, the dictatorship remained without too much difficulty. Seeing that he clearly had no support, Primo de Rivera asked whether senior military officers were willing to continue in power. Upon confirming that they were not, he submitted his resignation to the king. The king accepted and appointed General Berenguer as president of the Council of Ministers. Two months later, Primo de Rivera died in Paris.

The Soft Dictatorship and the Pact of San Sebastián

After Primo‘s resignation, King Alfonso XIII sent General Berenguer to form a government. Berenguer had a dictatorial regime known as the soft dictatorship. Berenguer’s program wanted to return to the pre-coup situation, restore the constitution of 1876, and the turn of parties. There was a reaction against Berenguer and the King. In August 1930, the Pact of San Sebastián was signed to end the monarchy and establish the republic. Berenguer resigned in February 1931 and was succeeded by Admiral Aznar.

The Fall of the Monarchy (The Elections of April 12)

The Republicans raised the municipal elections as a plebiscite on the monarchy. The Republican candidates won in the major cities and provincial capitals, but the total number of councilors was higher for the monarchists. The King renounced the throne and left the country without giving up his rights. On April 14, 1931, the Second Republic was proclaimed.