Spanish History: Monarchy, Republic, and Modern Era

Posted on Dec 1, 2024 in History

Quarter 1

5.1 Democratic Monarchy: Amedeo (1871-1873)

Upon approval of the 1869 constitution, General Serrano was elected regent. The search for a new monarch began, with several candidates. Amedeo’s selection marked the failure of the first democratic political experiment. The monarchy faced several problems:

  • The death of his main backer (Prim)
  • Political instability
  • Frequent government changes; general elections were held in March
  • Increasing social unrest and conflict
  • Discomfort of military commanders
  • Carlist opposition, supporters of Isabel II and her son, and Republican supporters of political reform

5.2 The First Republic (1873-1874)

The Court proclaimed the republic by a “majority vote,” although the data is misleading, as part of the chamber was monarchical. This period coincided with a division within the Democratic Republican Party. Federalists advocated for a system of covenants as a new republican government formula, along with state secularism. This group was anti-militarist and anti-clerical, with support from the petty bourgeoisie. Unitarian Republicans defended a republican state model but differed on the form of state organization. The first measures adopted by the republican governments were social, popular, and democratizing reforms:

  • Removal of consumption tax
  • Removal of houses and creation of an army
  • Lowering the voting age to 21
  • Removal of economic subsidies to the clergy and total separation of Church and State
  • Regulation of child labor
  • Abolition of slavery in Puerto Rico
  • A draft constitution for a federal state in Spain

In the first elections, characterized by a large turnout, the Federal Republicans won.

5.2.1 Federal Republic

The 1873 republic faced many problems:

  • Economic crisis and increased disturbance (bankruptcy)
  • Military discontent
  • The Carlist War
  • Cantonalist insurrections (centered in Andalusia, notably the canton of Cartagena)
  • War against the Cubans for independence, resulting in independence movements
  • Alfonsino conspiracies

2 Revolutionary Process of Cadiz: Boards, Courts, and Constitution

A new political regime was conceived. A political revolution occurred, and new institutions emerged, most importantly, the meetings. The need for coordination led to the formation of a supreme provincial board and then a central supreme board, which was unable to conduct the war. A constitution was drafted, based on historical tradition and various sources. The men of Cadiz created the legal structure for bourgeois society, based on several key principles:

  • National sovereignty
  • Division of powers
  • The right of representation through universal suffrage
  • Recognition of individual rights
  • Proclamation of Catholicism as the only religion

The Courts of Cadiz enacted significant legislation, including the abolition of the seigneurial regime and a process of secularization. However, these actions had little practical impact on American life. At the end of the war, Fernando VII’s return frustrated the liberal experience and led to the return of absolutism.

2nd Term

Construction Process

As in Europe, urban development also occurred in Spain, albeit slower, later, and less severe. It was concentrated in Madrid, Barcelona, and the Basque Country. Population growth encouraged immigration, and the industrial revolution brought people to factories. Transportation development enhanced centrality. Expanding cities saw intense lifestyle changes, including the appearance of railways. Growth was disjointed, with poor-quality suburban working-class areas lacking basic services, developing alongside factories and transportation routes. Urban design focused on beautification and pathway creation, most notably in the design and implementation of extensions. Planned residential areas for the bourgeoisie offered quality housing in large blocks with regular streets in grid layouts. In 1857, Madrid’s widening project was authorized. Cerdà’s plan represented one of the most advanced big-city models of the industrial age. It aimed for a symbiosis of scope and quality of life, similar to the Garden City concept. In the 19th century, Arturo Soria designed the linear city, an urbanized area linearly connecting two cities, with a central street for cars, flanked by plots for single-family houses with gardens. This concept was later applied in St. Petersburg.

The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera

On September 13, 1923, Miguel Primo de Rivera, Captain General of Barcelona, occupied the main building with his troops and declared the reasons for his rebellion, beginning a new dictatorial stage. He sent telegrams to other Captains General seeking support for his rebellion against the government. Two offered support (all depended on the monarch). Alfonso XIII, aware of the coup preparations, desired an authoritarian government. The king accepted the events and commissioned Primo de Rivera to form a government (an unconstitutional act). The military coup succeeded, with Alfonso XIII responsible for its success and the maintenance of the military dictatorship.

Political System of Cánovas

Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, a pragmatic politician from the Liberal Union, created a political system that spanned much of the Restoration. In 1874, Cánovas wrote the Sandhurst Manifesto, signed by Alfonso XII. Its objectives were:

  • Restoring the Bourbon monarchy
  • Recovering the old, classical liberal, anti-democratic representative system

To achieve this:

  • Alfonso XII replaced Isabel II. The new king had no enemies.
  • Cánovas replaced the Moderate Liberal Party with a new one he founded and led (Conservative Party)
  • Cánovas aimed to end military intervention in political life

The Cánovas system was based on four elements:

  • The King and the Courts: two essential institutions forming the regime’s core
  • Two bourgeois parties practicing politics (Conservative and Liberal Parties)

The Disaster of ’98

In 1895, uprisings for independence broke out in Cuba and the Philippines. Cuba’s independence war stemmed from the movement and Spain’s errors. Successive governments yielded to groups pushing colonial interests. U.S. politicians favored Cuban independence (assuming the departure of their last European colony). Support continued. In late 1894, the Liberals proposed a tentative autonomy plan. In February 1895, the revolt broke out (the Liberal government attempted mediation). Cánovas’s government sent General Weyler, who divided the territory into fortified lines and concentrated the civilian population. A war of attrition began. After Cánovas’s assassination, an autonomy plan emerged. General Blanco replaced Weyler, and peace seemed possible in Cuba. However, the U.S. decided to intervene. The American battleship Maine exploded, and the U.S. accused Spain, issuing an ultimatum threatening war unless Spain renounced sovereignty. In the Philippines, the Spanish army gained control. On August 12, Spain requested an armistice and, before the peace treaty, relinquished sovereignty, ceding the Philippines to the United States and the Mariana Islands to Germany.

Tragic Week in Barcelona

In 1909, violent incidents occurred in Barcelona and Catalonia. Demonstrations and a general strike erupted, degenerating into a violent insurrection spontaneously supported by the working class in Barcelona. The government declared a state of war and sent the army. The reasons for the outbreak were:

  • Protests against the colonial war in Morocco
  • Strong anti-clerical sentiment rooted in the popular classes, fueled by Alejandro Lerroux’s propaganda
  • Ongoing discontent of the Barcelonan proletariat

The most important consequences were:

  • Fall of the government: Maura’s Conservative government faced harsh criticism domestically and in Europe
  • Impact on opposition groups: Republicans and Socialists signed an agreement in November 1909 to form a common front against the monarchy
  • Harsh government crackdown against the labor movement
  • The unjust execution of Ferrer Guardia, which drew strong international protests

The Crisis of 1917

Economic conditions stemming from World War I accentuated social differences and created tension, which became more evident when the postwar economic euphoria ended. This tension erupted in 1917. Military discontent and social unrest caused a general anti-government protest. Despite its breadth and resonance, the 1917 protest movement failed to achieve its objectives. The discontented sectors lacked a common agenda and never achieved a real convergence of interests.

3rd Quarter

The Constitution of 1978

The Courts resulting from the 1977 elections were not constituent in nature. A draft constitution was developed by commissions of PCE, PSOE, and UCD representatives. Editorial work and each party’s definitive approval involved abandoning maximalist positions in favor of consensus. The constitution, approved by both chambers, was submitted to a national referendum on December 6, 1978, receiving two-thirds of the vote. It established a new democratic system in Spain, replacing Franco’s political structure. Its core values included freedom, justice, political pluralism, and equality before the law. Spain became a social and democratic state of law. The constitution established a parliamentary monarchy with the king as head of state and of the armed forces. It also established a parliamentary democracy with a division of powers: legislative power resided in the bicameral Cortes (Congress and Senate), executive power in the government (President, Vice President, and ministers), and judicial power in judges, chaired by the Supreme Court. The constitution had a strong democratic character, specifying rights and freedoms. Title VIII defined nationality, maintaining some confusion between nationality and region. It proposed a unitary state with uniform regional autonomies and devolved powers. The state was declared non-denominational, opening avenues for state protection of religious beliefs and their promotion in education.

The Era of Technocracy

The implementation of an economic stabilization plan marked the beginning of technocratic government under Ignácio. This political approach prioritized economic progress and administration based on technical expertise rather than ideology. From 1957 to the early 1970s, power was given to men from Opus Dei. Their objective was to liberalize the Spanish economy and integrate Spain into the Western capitalist system. Governments formed between 1957 and 1974 saw changes in structure and power-sharing, with a predominance of ministers from Opus Dei. The position of Vice President of the Government appeared in 1962 and was later transformed into Prime Minister in 1970.

Political and Institutional Laws: Basis of the New Regime

Franco’s political system rested on dictatorial, personal, and lifelong power. Its characteristics included total concentration of powers (legislative, military, executive), suppression of freedom of expression, and the absence of a written constitution. Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco became Franco’s most important collaborator. The ideological principles and institutions of the Franco regime can be examined through various pieces of legislation:

  • The Law of the Cortes: This law restored parliament, but its only tasks were to discuss bills, approve them, and applaud Franco’s speeches. The Cortes lacked representativeness.
  • Jurisdiction of Spaniards: After the defeat of the Axis powers in 1945, Spain needed to adapt to the new international situation. Distancing itself from the losers, Spain introduced institutional innovations. Falangists were marginalized, and fascist terminology was abandoned. Formally recognized freedoms were limited and reduced in practice.
  • National Referendum Law: This law established a referendum procedure that lacked real questioning and guarantees.
  • Law of Succession to the Head of State: This law confirmed Franco’s permanent leadership and defined the mechanism of succession, declaring Spain a kingdom. The Bourbon line of succession was not restored. Juan de Borbón opposed this law, calling it a monstrosity.
  • Law of the Principles of the National Movement: This law reproduced and reaffirmed the old values of the regime’s theorists.
  • The Organic Law of the State: This was the last fundamental law of the regime.
  • Labor Law: This law declared the basic principles and the social vocation of the new regime, with state intervention in setting labor rules and compensation. In 1940, the vertical union organization was created. This system was called “organic democracy.” In this system, citizen political participation was channeled through family, municipality, and other structures.

Suárez’s Government

Suárez’s first government had these characteristics: The cabinet and the circumstances were decisive for Spain’s transition to democracy. The opposition considered Suárez a politician without merit. Suárez’s government pushed for the Law for Political Reform, which established new bicameral Cortes with a Congress elected by universal suffrage. The government was empowered to call elections. The law was debated and overwhelmingly approved by the Francoist Cortes. The agreement of the opposition was obtained, and the possibility of participating in elections was negotiated separately. In 1977, the focus of political debate was the legalization of the PCE. The Communist Party pledged not to use the Republican flag and to abide by the monarchy. Numerous political parties emerged, including Popular Alliance, Union of the Democratic Center, PSOE (led by Felipe González), and PCE (led by Carrillo). Nationalist parties in the Basque Country gained influence, and a nationalist left emerged. In Catalonia, the situation was different. On June 15, 1977, the first democratic and pluralistic elections since 1936 were held. Suárez’s UCD won, followed by PSOE, PCE, and AP. The 1977 election results foreshadowed future contests, establishing two major parties of the center-left and center-right.