Spanish History: From Roman Conquest to 18th Century

Posted on Oct 24, 2024 in History

Stages of Roman Conquest

In the 3rd century BC, Rome and Carthage clashed for control of the Western Mediterranean. In 219 BC, Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, attacked Sagunto (an ally of Rome). The Romans considered this a breach of the Ebro Treaty, thus beginning the Second Punic War (218-206 BC) and the Roman occupation of the Iberian Peninsula. Stages:

1. Occupation of the Mediterranean Coast (218-170 BC): In 218 BC, Romans landed in Ampurias. In 209 BC, Scipio Africanus took New Carthage. By 206 BC, Gades was also under Roman control. Tax abuses led to indigenous revolts, which were harshly suppressed by Consul Cato.
2. Penetration into the Plateau (154-133 BC): Romans encountered significant indigenous resistance: the Lusitanian Wars, led by Viriathus (who employed guerilla tactics and was eventually assassinated on Rome’s orders), and the Celtiberian Wars, marked by the heroic resistance of Numantia, besieged by Scipio Aemilianus until its surrender in 133 BC. Civil wars in Rome hampered further progress, except for the conquest of the Balearic Islands in 123 BC.
3. Asturian-Cantabrian Wars (29-19 BC): The resistance of these peoples was so fierce that it forced Augustus to intervene personally. They were eventually enslaved in mines.

The 11th-Century Crisis: North African Empires

In 1031, the Caliphate of Cordoba collapsed, and Al-Andalus fragmented into 30 Taifa kingdoms. These kingdoms were prosperous and cultured but politically and militarily weak. Frequent disputes arose between them, and the weaker Taifas had to pay tributes (parias) to Christian kingdoms to avoid invasion. In 1085, Alfonso VI of Castile captured Toledo. Frightened, the Taifa kings sought help from the Almoravids, Berber fundamentalists who waged jihad against Christians. The Almoravids unified the Taifa kingdoms from 1086, but their rule disintegrated from 1140 due to attacks by the emerging Almohads. In 1147, the even more fundamentalist Almohads crossed into the peninsula. Their Caliph, Abd al-Mu’min, built an empire in North Africa with its capital in Rabat. They unified the Taifa kingdoms and defeated the Spanish at Alarcos (1195), but were ultimately defeated by a Christian coalition led by Alfonso VIII of Castile at Navas de Tolosa (1212). After the capture of Seville (1248), only the Taifa kingdom of Granada remained.

The Iberian Peninsula: A Pluralistic Culture

In the Middle Ages, Christian, Muslim, and Jewish cultures coexisted in the Iberian Peninsula.

During the Early Middle Ages (8th-10th centuries), only monasteries (Ripoll, Sahagún) preserved some aspects of culture through the copying and preservation of books. Islamic Spain held cultural superiority.

In the High Middle Ages (11th-13th centuries), the Camino de Santiago brought chansons de geste and Romanesque art. Universities appeared in the 13th century (Salamanca, Valladolid). The prestigious School of Translators of Toledo served as a cultural bridge between the Islamic world and Christianity, reaching its peak under Alfonso X “the Wise” (13th century). Christians, Muslims, and Jews collaborated there, translating works from Arabic into Latin and then directly into Castilian. The literary use of the “vulgar” (Castilian) language progressed.

In the Late Middle Ages (14th-15th centuries), Muslim cultural influence waned. Castilian replaced Galician as the language of poetry. Prominent figures include the Archpriest of Hita and the Marquis of Santillana.

Castile, Portugal, and the Canary Islands

In the 14th century, the Canary Islands—called “fortunate” by Latin authors—had been explored by Genoese, Andalusian, and Catalan sailors, but they generated little interest. In the 15th century, Portuguese sailors, who had conquered Ceuta (1415) and Madeira, reached the Gulf of Guinea in their Atlantic explorations, seeking slaves and gold, which were scarce in Europe. Arab merchants transported these commodities by caravan to Maghreb ports. The Spanish, however, were interested in North African expansion and gold. The Canary Islands became a crucial stopover on Atlantic routes, leading to rivalry with Castile. The conquest of the Canary Islands began when Jean de Bethencourt, a Norman knight, conquered Lanzarote and Fuerteventura in 1402, declaring himself a vassal of King Henry III of Castile. He later sold his rights to Sevillian nobles, who continued the conquest of La Gomera and El Hierro. From 1475, the Catholic Monarchs directly oversaw the conquest of the remaining islands: Gran Canaria, La Palma, and Tenerife (1500). The Canary Islands became an essential link in the voyages to America. The indigenous Guanches were subdued and assimilated. The conflict with Portugal over the islands was resolved by the Treaty of Alcáçovas (1479): King Alfonso V of Portugal recognized Castilian rights to the Canaries and the African coast opposite them, in exchange for the Catholic Monarchs relinquishing any claims to the African coast, the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde.

The State Under the Catholic Monarchs

The Catholic Monarchs laid the foundations of the modern state and the authoritarian monarchy. Government institutions included:

1. Councils: Specialized advisory bodies for the monarchs, such as the Council of State, the Council of Castile, the Council of Aragon, the Council of the Indies, and the Council of the Inquisition.
2. Secretaries: Lawyers and trusted advisors to the monarchs.
3. Viceroys: Representatives of the sovereign in territories where the monarch was not present.
4. Cortes: Assemblies summoned infrequently to swear allegiance to heirs to the throne and grant extraordinary subsidies.
5. Corregidores: Delegates of the Castilian monarchs in cities to maintain control.
6. Chanceries or Audiencias: For the administration of justice.

To suppress heresy and safeguard Christian orthodoxy, they established the Court of the Inquisition or Holy Office (1478), which focused on Jewish converts (conversos). They subdued the nobility but consolidated its economic and social power with the law of entail (1505). To combat banditry in rural areas, they created the Santa Hermandad (1476). They controlled the Church through the Patronato Real.

Expansion Under the Catholic Monarchs

a) Italian Politics: Expansion in the Mediterranean was a traditional interest of the Crown of Aragon, but Italy was also coveted by France. Both powers fought in the Italian Wars (1494-1504). Charles VIII of France ceded Roussillon and Cerdanya to Ferdinand in 1493, hoping to dissuade him from Italian ambitions, but was forced to withdraw from Naples by the Catholic King. His successor, Louis XII, negotiated the partition of Naples with Ferdinand, but a new war broke out. Spanish troops led by Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba (“the Great Captain”) defeated the French at Cerignola and Garigliano in 1503, conquering the Kingdom of Naples.

b) North African Politics: The Crown of Castile had strategic and commercial interests in North Africa. After the conquest of Granada (1492), the ideal of the crusade against Islam led to expansion into the Maghreb. Spanish occupation was limited to strongholds like Melilla (1497), Oran, Béjaïa, and Tripoli.

The Empire of Charles V: Internal Conflicts

Charles I (1516-1556) inherited a vast empire. From his grandfather Ferdinand, he received the Crown of Aragon (Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Sardinia, Naples, and Sicily), and from his grandmother Isabella, the Crown of Castile, Navarre, and the Americas. Charles, born and raised in Flanders, arrived in Spain in 1517, unfamiliar with the languages of his kingdoms and surrounded by Flemish advisors who occupied key positions, upsetting the Castilian and Aragonese nobility. In 1519, upon the death of his grandfather, Emperor Maximilian I, Charles was elected Holy Roman Emperor as Charles V. Two major uprisings followed: the Revolt of the Comuneros in Castile and the Revolt of the Germanies in Valencia and Mallorca.

The Revolt of the Comuneros (1520-1522): When Charles left for Germany to be crowned emperor, he appointed Adrian of Utrecht as regent of Castile. Many Castilian cities revolted (Toledo, Burgos, Ávila, Valladolid, Segovia, Salamanca, etc.) and formed Comunidades. They demanded that the king dismiss his Flemish advisors and respect their liberties. The movement, led by Juan de Padilla, Juan Bravo, and Francisco Maldonado, initially involved the lower nobility and urban middle classes, but later spread to the peasantry. The Comuneros sought the support of Queen Juana “the Mad” in Tordesillas. After imperial troops burned Medina del Campo (August 1520), the movement radicalized, incorporating anti-seigneurial demands, which caused most of the Castilian nobility to side with the emperor. The Comuneros were defeated at Villalar (1521), and their leaders were executed. Charles subsequently removed foreigners from the Castilian government, and Castile became the heart of the Habsburg Empire. Interpretations of the Comuneros vary. Traditionally seen as an early modern revolution against Charles V’s authoritarianism, more recent interpretations view it as a last stand against the modern state, with the urban oligarchy seeking to retain its 15th-century power.

The Revolt of the Germanies (1519-1523): These urban uprisings in Valencia and Mallorca had social overtones similar to the Comuneros. In Valencia in 1519, the nobility fled the city due to the plague, and the guilds, armed against Barbary pirates, seized control, expelling the viceroy. The agermanados were artisans, merchants, and peasants who revolted against the nobles and urban oligarchy, demanding freedom and economic improvements. They also attacked the Mudéjars, forcing them to convert to Christianity. The Valencian nobility sided with the emperor, and the rebellion was crushed in 1522. A similar movement in Mallorca also failed. Charles V, victorious in both revolts, respected the privileges of the kingdoms but strengthened his authoritarian rule.

The Hispanic Monarchy of Philip II

The Hispanic Monarchy reached its zenith under Philip II (1556-1598). A centralizing monarch, he established his court in Madrid and built his palace at El Escorial. His domestic policy focused on authoritarianism and religious intolerance. He took measures to suppress heresy: 1. He eliminated Protestants in Valladolid and Seville. 2. He expelled the Moriscos after the War of the Alpujarras (1568-1571), quelled by Don John of Austria. He strengthened his power against the privileges of the Kingdom of Aragon and executed his chief justice, Juan de Lanuza, due to conflicts with his former secretary, Antonio Pérez.

His foreign policy aimed for European hegemony and the triumph of Catholicism. He defeated France at St. Quentin (1557). The fleet of the Holy League (Spain, Venice, and the Papacy), led by Don John of Austria, crushed the Ottoman fleet at Lepanto (1571). He achieved Iberian union by becoming king of Portugal in 1580. His greatest challenge was the Dutch Revolt (1568-1648), where Calvinists sought autonomy. Neither the Duke of Alba nor Don John of Austria could prevent the secession of the northern Protestant provinces. He clashed with England, which supported the Dutch and pirates, but the Spanish Armada sent in 1588 failed.

16th-Century Spain: Iberian Unity

Philip II aimed to consolidate the Hispanic Monarchy’s supremacy, hence the need to incorporate Portugal. After the death of the Portuguese king without an heir, Philip claimed the throne as the son of Isabella of Portugal and grandson of Manuel I. The Portuguese nobility and higher clergy supported Philip, while the lower clergy and commoners favored another candidate, António, Prior of Crato. Troops led by the Duke of Alba invaded in 1580. Philip II was recognized as king of Portugal by the Cortes of Tomar in 1581, achieving Iberian unity, a result of the marriage policies of the Catholic Monarchs. Philip II became ruler of the largest empire ever seen, leading to the saying that “the sun never set on his domains.” Philip remained in Portugal for two years, maintaining the independence of Portuguese institutions. The Portuguese nobility and intellectuals were satisfied, but the lower classes hoped for the return of King Sebastian (Sebastianism).

The Habsburg Political Model

The Habsburg monarchy was multinational, comprising diverse kingdoms with considerable autonomy but under Castilian dominance. It expanded on the authoritarian model of the Catholic Monarchs. Philip II’s governing bodies were:

1. The Monarch: The center of power, with the court in Madrid from 1561. The early Habsburgs (Charles I and Philip II) ruled directly, but later Habsburgs delegated power to validos (favorites like the Duke of Lerma and the Count-Duke of Olivares).
2. Councils: A Council of State, territorial councils (Castile, Aragon, Indies, etc.), and specialized councils (Inquisition, Treasury, War, etc.). This system is known as polisinodial.
3. Secretaries or Chancellors: Powerful intermediaries between the king and the councils.
4. Viceroys: The king’s personal representatives in non-Castilian territories, such as the Netherlands.
5. Cortes: Assemblies in Castile, Navarre, and Aragon, gradually losing power.
6. Audiencias: Functioning as high courts of justice.

Bourbon Policies in 18th-Century America

Reforms aimed to streamline administration in the Indies and increase revenue. Administratively, Secretariats, viceroyalties (New Granada and Río de la Plata), and captaincies general were established. The sale of offices was halted, and a new position, the Intendant, was created for America. These reforms upset Creoles, who were excluded from important positions. Trade measures sought to revitalize American trade, focusing on raw material exports and Spanish manufactured imports. The Casa de Contratación moved from Seville to Cádiz. The Free Trade Decree (1778) ended Cádiz’s monopoly, abolished the fleet system, and extended the royal monopoly to products like tobacco and alcohol, while allowing some colonial trade through companies like the Caracas Company.

The Decline of Habsburg Hegemony

The 17th century, ruled by the so-called Minor Habsburgs, was a period of decline for Spain, politically and economically, coinciding with a general European crisis.

Philip III (1598-1621) pursued a pacifist foreign policy, signing peace with England and the Twelve Years’ Truce with Holland in 1609. Philip IV (1621-1665) and his valido, the Count-Duke of Olivares, intervened in the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648), supporting the Austrian Habsburgs and defending Catholicism against Protestant Germany, Holland, and France (which aided the Protestants despite being Catholic). After initial victories at Nordlingen and Breda (1634), Spanish armies were defeated at sea (The Downs, 1639) and on land (Rocroi, 1643). The Peace of Westphalia (1648) recognized Dutch independence and marked the end of Habsburg hegemony. The war with France concluded with the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), ceding Roussillon, Cerdanya, Artois, and other territories to France. Charles II (1665-1700), weak and sickly, suffered defeats against Louis XIV’s France, which annexed border towns in the Netherlands and Franche-Comté. Dying without an heir, he left the throne to Philip of Anjou, leading to the War of the Spanish Succession and the establishment of the Bourbons in Spain.

The Crisis of 1640

To finance the Thirty Years’ War, the Count-Duke of Olivares attempted to create the Unión de Armas, requiring all kingdoms to contribute men and money without considering their resources. Opposition to Olivares and Philip IV led to widespread revolts in 1640.

The Catalan Revolt (1640-1652): Sparked by abuses of royal officials during the war, the underlying cause was Catalan resentment of Olivares’s centralizing policies. Catalans refused to pay taxes, and a peasant revolt erupted. The segadors (reapers) entered Barcelona during the Corpus Christi procession (Corpus de Sang, “Corpus of Blood”) and assassinated the viceroy. They proclaimed Louis XIII of France as Count of Barcelona. After 12 years, the rebels surrendered to John of Austria’s troops in 1652.

The Portuguese Revolt (1640-1668): Angered by new taxes and Castilian policies, the Portuguese revolted and proclaimed the Duke of Braganza as King John IV. The rebellion was aristocratic, anti-Castilian, and pro-independence. Supported by France and England, Portugal achieved independence in 1668.

Mentality and Culture in the Golden Age

The 17th century was a time of crisis, with Spain facing serious problems: loss of European hegemony to France, depopulation, famines, epidemics, economic decline, rising taxes, and mass poverty contrasting with the ostentation of the privileged. Those who recognized the decline and proposed solutions were called arbitristas. Some of their proposals were outlandish, others reasonable, but all were rejected. Key arbitristas included Sancho de Moncada, Martín González de Cellorigo, and Fernández Navarrete. However, decline did not mean cultural decadence. Spain experienced a cultural and artistic golden age, coinciding with the Baroque movement. Spanish Baroque culture was courtly and Catholic, serving as propaganda for the Counter-Reformation. Its purpose was to sway the masses towards submission to the Church and the privileged, discouraging rebellion. Hence, it was grandiose, ostentatious, and sentimental.

Leading figures in Baroque literature included Quevedo and Góngora in poetry (both popular and learned). Theater, the preferred medium for disseminating dominant values, featured Lope de Vega, Calderón de la Barca, and Tirso de Molina, who wrote comedies, tragedies, and religious plays. Miguel de Cervantes’s Don Quixote (1605) gave rise to the modern novel, and the picaresque novel reached its peak (Mateo Alemán). Science, however, saw little development, hindering further progress.

The 18th-Century Dynastic Change

Philip V, the first Bourbon king of Spain, issued the Nueva Planta decrees, abolishing the fueros (charters) and traditional institutions of the Crown of Aragon kingdoms (Valencia and Aragon in 1707, Mallorca in 1715, and Catalonia in 1716) as punishment for supporting the Habsburg candidate in the War of the Spanish Succession. This imposed a uniform, centralized political and administrative structure based on the Castilian model, favoring absolute monarchy. Navarre and the Basque Country, however, retained their fueros.

The highest political and military authority in each kingdom became a Captain General, heading the Real Audiencia. A Superintendent managed finances and the economy. The central administration was reorganized. Councils (except Castile’s) were replaced by Secretariats headed by Secretaries of Dispatch (forerunners of modern ministers), appointed by the king. Key ministries included State, Justice, Navy, War, Indies, and Finance. The Cortes of Castile became the sole assembly for the monarchy. The Cortes of the Crown of Aragon were abolished, and the Castilian Cortes lost power. Philip V introduced a new tax in the Crown of Aragon: the cadastre in Catalonia, the equivalent in Valencia, the única contribución in Aragon, and the talla in Mallorca.

18th-Century Spanish Foreign Policy

The Treaty of Utrecht (1713), ending the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714), ended French hegemony and established a new international order based on the balance of power between France, Austria, and Great Britain. Spain lost its European possessions and became a second-tier power. Philip V (1700-1746), influenced by his second wife, Elisabeth Farnese, who desired Italian thrones for her children, attempted to regain lost Italian territories. This revisionism challenged the international balance and brought conflict with Great Britain, the dominant naval and commercial power. A military expedition to Sardinia and Sicily in 1717 failed. In 1731, he secured the Duchy of Parma for his son Charles through an agreement with Britain and France. Seeking an alliance with France, he signed the First Family Compact in 1733, joining France in the War of the Polish Succession against Austria in exchange for recognition of Charles as King of the Two Sicilies (Naples and Sicily) in 1735. The Second Family Compact (1743) involved Spain in the War of the Austrian Succession, securing the Duchy of Parma for Philip, another son of Philip V and Elisabeth Farnese (1748). Ferdinand VI (1746-1759) maintained neutrality, strengthening Spain’s military. He died without issue. Under Charles III (1759-1788), Spain allied with France against Britain, aiming to halt British expansion in the Atlantic and regain Gibraltar and Menorca. The Third Family Compact (1761) brought Spain into the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763). Both France and Spain were defeated by Britain. France lost its Canadian and Indian possessions, and Spain ceded Florida, receiving Louisiana from France as compensation. Spain aided the American colonists in their War of Independence (1775-1783), regaining Florida, Menorca, and Sacramento in the Treaty of Paris (1783). Charles IV (1788-1808) continued the French alliance, except for a brief war against the French Republic (1793-1795), which ended in failure. Spain returned to the French orbit with the Treaty of San Ildefonso (1796), signed with Napoleon, leading to a disastrous clash with Britain. The Spanish navy was destroyed at Trafalgar (1805).

Note: The Quadruple Alliance (Britain, Austria, France, and Savoy) opposed Spanish expansion. The Family Compacts were so named because of the dynastic links between the French and Spanish Bourbon families.