Spanish History: From Discovery of America to the Enlightenment
The Discovery of America
The discovery of America was one of the most high-profile events in the history of mankind. An important factor in this epic was the technical achievement with mastery of the caravel, a new and resilient boat. Seville was a city where many merchants lived, and the Canary Islands were located in line with the trade winds. Christopher Columbus had arrived in Portugal with the new idea of reaching India by sailing west. The project was rejected by the Portuguese king, and Columbus decided to seek support for his enterprise from the Catholic Monarchs. After the War of Granada, Ferdinand and Isabella granted him the title of Admiral, three ships, and ninety sailors, relying on the Pinzón brothers. The company was funded by the Crown of Castile. The fleet sailed from Palos on August 3, 1492, arriving in what they thought were the eastern shores of Asia on October 12, 1492. The new continent was later called America. The next three voyages of Columbus were already a settlement enterprise. Many Spanish and Portuguese sailors set out to conquer the newly discovered territory. As the Catholic Monarchs wanted to maintain good relations with Portugal, they signed the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), which divided the overseas world between Castile and Portugal. In 1503, the House of Trade was created in Seville to control the flow of people and goods to the New World. American affairs were directed from Spain by the Council of the Indies, established in 1511.
Conquest and Colonization
By 1511, the entire Caribbean was controlled. Hernán Cortés left Cuba in 1518 to conquer the Aztec Empire, which he achieved with a small army and the alliance of Mexican Indians, subjugated by a tyrannical Montezuma. The occupation soon reached the Yucatán Peninsula and later spread to Central America, Honduras, Guatemala, etc. The whole territory was renamed New Spain. Between 1527 and 1533, Francisco Pizarro started from Panama, expanding south along the Pacific coast. He became master of Atahualpa, the Inca Empire, in what has been called the conquest of Peru. From this base, the conquest would penetrate and extend: Pedro de Valdivia conquered Chile; after occupying Ecuador, Orellana began exploring the Amazon, work that Lope de Aguirre would continue. In 1560, Mendoza traversed the Río de la Plata. Others, like Cabeza de Vaca, explored southern North America. Settlement stemmed from the Peninsula, checked and analyzed by the House of Trade and the Council of the Indies, as was any type of trade and exploitation. The settlers were from Andalusia, Castile, Extremadura, León, and the Basque Country. In the sixteenth century, there were about 200,000, increasing to half a million in the eighteenth century. The children of these settlers were American-born Creoles.
Impact of America on Spain
The operation of the mines of Potosí and the achievement of native gold caused an intense flow of precious metals to the Peninsula, and from there to Europe. This overabundance of gold and silver was never parallel to investment, so there was no increase in production, causing a dramatic rise in prices (price revolution). This effect was especially marked in the State of Castile. To alleviate the growing deficit, expenses were incurred in the maintenance of Spanish troops in Europe, the initiatives of conquest, expansion, and maintenance of the Empire, creating an army that would defend trade and the fleets that connected America and the Peninsula. The reality was that the vast majority of gold and silver arriving in Seville was diverted directly to Italy and Germany to pay interest and repay loans acquired by the monarchy. The positive economic impacts were hardly seen; there was no investment in productive economic activities. The money that did not go abroad became jewelry accumulation or consumption of imported goods.
The Empire of Charles V: Internal Conflicts
When Philip, Archduke of Austria, died, and after the regency of Cardinal Cisneros in the Hispanic realms, Charles of Austria inherited the Duchy of Burgundy and the kingdoms of Spain. In Asturias, surrounded by Flemish, whom he placed in power, he was not well received. In 1518, the Cortes met in Valladolid to swear in the new king, who would require an oath to Castilian laws and other issues that he would later respect. After swearing the privileges of Aragon upon the death of his grandfather Maximilian of Austria, he decided to present his election as emperor of Germany, and therefore needed Fugger loans. Charles V was elected and had to attend the coronation, but he had no money to transport his entourage. His advisers convinced him that money could be drawn from Castile. The city of Toledo, which had not been received on previous occasions, requested injunctive relief from the king and began to coordinate with other Castilian cities regarding the attitudes and the absence of the monarch. The king got money by pressure in the Cortes at Santiago de Compostela, promising not to assign any overseas job assignments. But upon leaving, he left Adrian of Utrecht as regent.
The Regions of Castile
Arriving, the lack of knowledge of the king’s promise increased discomfort. There was chaos in Segovia, Toledo, Ávila, Burgos, León, Zamora, Salamanca, and others. These cities, controlled by the bourgeoisie, were established in Community and formed their own army under the leadership of Juan Bravo. The military intervention of the regent in Medina del Campo spread the revolt. Representatives of cities constituted the Holy Board (1520) and declared it sovereign. The regent was financially supported by Portugal and went on the offensive while the nobles left the Board. In 1521, the Communards were defeated at Villalar, and their leaders were executed. Since then, the Castilian towns were completely subjected to the crown.
The Germanías
The Germanías were born as defense militias against pirate attacks on the Mediterranean coast. In Valencia, fleeing nobles, fearing the spread of a plague epidemic, the Germanías were organized by the people of the town. An anti-nobility trend emerged, and they controlled much of the kingdom. In Palma de Mallorca, what happened in Valencia was mimicked, and there was a revolt against high taxes to be paid by the common people. Royal military intervention soon ended the riots, followed by strong anti-seigneurial reprisals. Both movements and their impact eventually strengthened the power of the monarchy.
The Hispanic Monarchy of Philip II: Iberian Unity
Monarch Philip II was an austere man. He subordinated all his policy to Catholic unity, the struggle against Protestantism. He was intolerant and centralized, controlling absolutely all decisions. He had no direct knowledge of the problems of Spain. He neglected commercial development and, therefore, the benefits that the American colonies could have brought. The interests of their kingdoms were subject to the Catholic Church and the House of Austria. The Spanish unit would be based on religion; there was a closure, and regional differences were eliminated. In alliance with Venice and Pius V, he formed the Holy League, which slowed down the Turks in the Eastern Mediterranean at Lepanto. From Milan and Naples, he controlled Italy. The Netherlands sought independence from imperial power, an issue that was achieved after a very long war. The eagerness to destroy the English privateers, return England to Catholicism, and prevent them from supporting the Protestants on the continent led to the clash with England. This led to the disaster of the “Invincible Armada” (1588) and the end of Spanish sea power. In Alcazarquivir, in 1578, King Sebastian of Portugal, nephew of Philip II, died. He was succeeded by the childless Infante D. Henry, who died two years later. The nobility and the clergy supported Philip II against D. Antonio, Prior of Crato and illegitimate grandson of D. Manuel the Fortunate, who was supported by the people and lower clergy. After a short war, the Cortes of Tomar recognized Philip II as king of Portugal. The Portuguese and Castilian nobility and intelligentsia got along very well, but the Portuguese people always (1581-1641) wanted to get rid of Castilian rule. With the union of all crowns, unity was achieved not only of the peninsular territories but also of its very broad overseas dominions, creating the most extensive empire that ever existed.
Political Model of the House of Austria: The Union of Kingdoms
Neither Charles V nor the Catholic Monarchs had a stable fixed capital. Philip II established his court in Madrid, central and independent of influences from the Archbishop of Toledo. A Castilianization of all realms was conducted. Madrid hosted the main organs of government. The government of the kingdom followed a polysynodial model. Each kingdom conserved its own historical and institutional characteristics, and above them was the king. Councils were kept up by the Catholic Monarchs, and new ones were created for the new territories. There was a Council of State, created by Charles V, which advised the king on all matters, and within it, a war council that was almost constant. The Council of State used to be chaired by a Secretary of the Cabinet, who, in the time of the lesser Habsburgs, became the figure of the favorite. Other new councils were those of Italy, the Indies, Flanders, and Portugal. In the non-Castilian kingdoms, the king was replaced by the Viceroy (Aragon, Navarre, Sardinia, Sicily, and Naples, New Spain-Mexico, and Peru). In territories such as Flanders and Milan, a Governor General ruled.
Economy and Society in the Sixteenth Century
Agriculture in the Peninsula, with a nobility and a church as absentee landlords, had no modernization. Extensions for rainfed cereal and vine were insufficient. The most effective irrigation was concentrated in depressions and the Mediterranean coast. Transhumant sheep husbandry, with Philip II and facing opposition from farmers and manufacturers of textiles (wool exports became more expensive), lost significance. Industry did not receive large investments due to the abundance of precious metals and the ease of importing. The textile or steel industries could not compete with the qualities and prices of European companies. The transport network was scarce and of poor quality, thus hindering trade and making it more expensive. Finances were concentrated in places where fairs were important, often coinciding with the arrival of the Indies fleet. When the fleet began to be less abundant and regular, fairs also declined. Prices rose with the arrival of American gold and silver, causing continuous inflation. The major consumer of goods produced in the peninsula, mainly agricultural, was America. Demographically, the sixteenth century saw steady but slow growth until 1596, when a plague epidemic caused catastrophic mortality. There was, moreover, internal migration from the Cantabrian coast, crowded into the interior and especially to the south, particularly Seville. The high nobility, who charged their rents in kind, felt no inflation and gained economic power. The lower nobility grew particularly large in rural areas and gained political power in the representation of municipal councils, so it is often the existence of two mayors, one a gentleman and the other of the common people. Among the clergy, there was also a differentiation between a rich urban clergy and a poor rural clergy without resources. The people constituted 80% of the population, dominated by the peasantry. Peasants and artisans bore the tax burden. Converted Jews were excluded from access to public employment and religious orders. The Moors were forced into Christianization plans, so from Granada, and after their revolt, they were deported to Castile. A third group was made up of marginalized Gypsies, living a nomadic life and dedicated primarily to the treatment of livestock. The vagabonds and unemployed increased in number during times of war.
Culture and Mentality: The Inquisition
The Greater Habsburgs, especially Philip II, were defenders of the faith and the Roman Church and unreservedly supported the Inquisition. They monitored and quelled outbreaks, especially Protestants, that arose in Valladolid and Seville. But despite its reputation for cruelty, the Inquisition stood out for its law enforcement in all environments. Charles I was influenced by Italian cultural trends and supported their expansion. Philip II, in his more radical anti-reformist position, closed access to European thought and culture. In the humanities, Luis Vives should be emphasized as a thinker, and Francisco de Vitoria as a creator of International Law. Theological studies were also carried out with Domingo de Soto and others, although their chances were limited by censorship. Historiographical studies had great development through “Annals” and “Chronicles.” Antonio de Nebrija edited “Grammar in Castilian” and the “Complutense Polyglot Bible.” In natural science, ethnographic studies and the Natural History of the Indies were conducted. Servetus is noteworthy for discovering the pulmonary circulation of the blood. Literature highlighted particular authors such as Boscán and Garcilaso de la Vega. A particular case is the “Mystic.” Moreover, the basis of the national theater was established. This coexisted with picaresque novels and novels of chivalry. In artistic expressions, the Renaissance label was felt. The Gothic style evolved into Isabeline Plateresque, coexisting with a purist Renaissance style (Palace of Charles V). Sculpture went through the same steps, complementing architecture: cover art, altarpieces, stalls, tombs. Fully Renaissance and influenced by Michelangelo were Bartolomé Ordóñez, Diego de Siloé, Alonso Berruguete, and Juan de Juni. In painting, Italian and Flemish influences were present. Dalmau, Huguet, Bartolomé Bermejo, and Pedro Berruguete, among others, stood out. With Philip II, Juan de Herrera settled a style that would later influence the Baroque.
The Crisis of 1640
In 1624, the Count-Duke of Olivares presented a memorial to the king according to which Spain should be reformed in relation to the following issues: reform of the administration, trade protectionism, population policies, homogenization of the realms, and the creation of the Union of Arms. Since that time, there were riots against it. In 1640, the tension reached critical levels.
Catalan Uprising
Olivares decided to attack France from Catalonia to relieve French pressure on Flanders. Catalonia contributed men and money to the Roussillon campaign. The Count-Duke sent Italian troops without supplies, badly disciplined, who committed all forms of abuse against the Catalan population. He thought that this would allow him to emphasize centrality and eliminate Catalan foralism. But before the royal army’s abuse, uproars emerged in Barcelona and other cities (Corpus of Blood). Madrid decided to punish these actions, and Barcelona responded with secession (Pau Claris), proclaiming the Republic under the protection of Louis XIII of France. Olivares prioritized the Catalan case, preparing an army with very little organization that failed in the taking of Lérida (1642). Olivares gave way to Luis de Haro, leaving aside the problem that would not be solved until the war with France and the Netherlands, which was partly due to the uprising.
Portuguese Uprising
The crisis affected trade and Portuguese colonies. During the Twelve Years’ Truce, the centrality of the Count-Duke, the tax burden, and especially the recruitment of soldiers for the war in Catalonia caused the deposition of the viceroy of Portugal. The Duke of Braganza was proclaimed king under the name of John IV and was immediately recognized by Britain, France, and the Netherlands. Spain, at war with France and the Netherlands and attempting to recover Catalonia, failed in 1660 to make an attempt to break Portuguese secessionism. It was too late.
Other Secessionist Attempts
Centralization and the weakness of the monarchy led to minor secessionist attempts in Andalusia, Aragon, Navarre, Naples, and Sicily.
Economic and Social Developments
The Spain of the Golden Age was a poor country that wanted to maintain the appearance of power. The arrival of American silver curbed domestic production and encouraged imports. Finances were controlled by foreign bankers. Between 1630 and 1640, less silver began to flow, and there was a decline in prices and production. Several bankruptcies occurred, causing political problems. Any reform decision—balancing trade, reducing the number of clerics, reforming the tax authorities—was defeated by the privileged classes. From 1680, Castile fell economically, while the periphery recovered somewhat: Aragon, Andalusia, and the Cantabrian coast.
Social Evolution
During the first half of the century, the population declined due to the expulsion of the Moors, wars, emigration to America, and plague epidemics related to the economic crisis. The rural population decreased, while the urban population increased. Noble estates increased in number and power; the lower nobility, not being active, was ruined. The lower clergy significantly increased the number of those ordained as a way of profit. The lower bourgeoisie sought rundown nobility or purchased securities. The peasants and artisans were oppressed by taxes, and the number of vagabonds, rogues, beggars, and bandits increased.
The War of Succession and the System of Utrecht
Charles II died childless in 1700. Spain had lost weight in Europe but continued to be important and relevant, remaining the largest territorial state with its American and European domains. Louis XIV of France and Leopold I of Austria, sons and husbands of Spanish princesses, were candidates to choose the Spanish Crown. The sequence was presented as a struggle for hegemony over Europe, pursued by Louis XIV, and could cause the breakup of the international balance defended by England and Holland. The candidates for the throne were Philip of Bourbon, grandson of the king of France, and Archduke Charles, second son of the Emperor of Austria. Before he died, Charles II made a will (for the second time) in favor of Philip and banned the distribution of the Spanish crown. Philip V had to renounce his rights to the crown of France. Louis accepted the will, and Philip V of Spain was recognized as king at Versailles. The Archduke rejected the proclamation and broke off relations with France. In Spain, the new king was received with hope of recovering from the crisis. But Louis XIV took a series of decisions that triggered the war: he continued the rights of Philip V to the French throne, militarily occupied part of Flanders, took advantage of trading privileges in Spanish colonies, etc. Holland and England allied against Spain and France and supported Archduke Charles. The war spread through Europe and Spain. In Europe, the war was being played out between hegemony and the balance of power; in Spain, the centrality of the Bourbons or the continuity of the state of the Habsburgs was being disputed. Supporters of the institutions and liberties of the kingdoms supported the Archduke, fearing that Philip V would not respect them. The war in Spain was leaning on the side of Archduke Charles at a time when France was defeated in Europe. In 1711, the Austrian emperor died, and Archduke Charles inherited the imperial crown. Holland and England left the alliance, and Philip V eventually dominated Spanish territory, thus ending the War of Succession and beginning a new phase for the monarchy. In 1713, a series of treaties were signed in Utrecht and Rastatt between Spain, France, and the Allies. Philip V was recognized as King of Spain, renouncing his rights to the French throne. The balance in Europe was restored. The allies divided the European possessions of the Spanish monarchy, which was reduced to the Hispanic territories except for Gibraltar and Menorca, and the colonies. The Austrian Empire received Flanders, Milan, Naples, and Sardinia, which it later exchanged for Sicily. England became a great European power, with commercial and strategic advantages, breaking the Spanish monopoly of American trade. Spain lost power and prestige. The monarchy was strengthened and focused on reforms and the colonial state.
The Change of Dynasty: The First Bourbons
After signing the Treaty of Utrecht, locations in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands were reluctant to accept the Bourbons, but the troops of Philip V, between 1914 and 1915, took Barcelona and Mallorca, thus ending the resistance. The arrival of the Bourbons assumed, in imitation of the French model, the imposition of an absolutist system. The king was the State, concentrating all powers and all institutions, and therefore it was necessary to eliminate all existing limitations to the reign of Philip V. The Crown consolidated alliances with France and attempted political reformism in Spain. Foreign policy went to regain territory in southern Italy, which had been lost in Utrecht. In January 1724, Philip V abdicated in favor of his son Louis I, who died in December of that year, and he had to return to reign until his death in 1746. He was succeeded by Ferdinand VI, who had the Marquis of Ensenada, a true statesman, who advanced into reformism and attempted a policy of neutrality. Upon the death of Ferdinand VI, who had no offspring, he was succeeded by his brother Charles, King of the Two Sicilies, who ascended the throne under the title of Charles III.
Reforms in State Organization: The Central Monarchy
With Philip V, royal absolutism was introduced. The king was identified with the state, was sovereign by the grace of God, and concentrated all powers in his person. The king would impose his authority over lords, churchmen, and subjects of the kingdoms. It was necessary to reform the state, centralize it, and enforce legal and institutional uniformity throughout. The excuse to enforce the decrees of the New Plan, involving the abolition of the privileges of Aragon, was the support that Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, and Mallorca gave to Archduke Charles. New institutions were created by the authority of the king, canceling the old foral regime; political institutions followed the Castilian model. Tax privileges were deleted, and a new tax controlled by the Treasury was introduced. Military privileges were eliminated in Catalonia and Aragon; all would serve in the army. A captain general replaced the viceroy, and a royal court or High Court was established in each capital, with royal judges who should use Castilian in causes. The Cortes were abolished, as were the Generalitat and the Consell de Cent of Barcelona. Local administration was conducted by aldermen, local nobles who favored the monarchy. Only Navarre and the Basque Country maintained their privileges, having supported Philip V in the war. The king was surrounded by a private body or cabinet. The Parliament of the Kingdom was organized, with barely any functions. Ministries were created, replacing the old Councils; only that of Castile retained importance, with general functions. The territorial administration reform was to divide the peninsula into eleven areas, in front of which a captain general was named, with civil and military authority. The Court acted in each area as a consultative organ of government and administered justice. Management was exercised by a mayor, and municipal autonomy was lost. Military conscription of fifths and “lazy and idle” was established, and weaponry was modernized. An attempt was made to regain naval power. Taxation became more uniform throughout the country, and indirect taxes were generalized.
The Practice of Enlightened Despotism: Charles III
This was the conception of absolute monarchy government in Europe in the second half of the eighteenth century. Enlightened despots thought their purpose was to achieve happiness and the welfare of their subjects through “good governance,” economically speaking, to increase the production and wealth of the kingdom. Thus, the monarchy was reformist, rationalizing the administration and promoting culture and education. The reign of Charles III was the most prosperous of the eighteenth century. When he arrived in Spain, he had been ruling the Two Sicilies for 25 years and devoted himself to the role of “enlightened despot monarch” through his highly trained staff of jurists. His ministers launched reform programs, provided under the authority of the king. Initial reforms were ill-conceived and untimely, relating to fashion and customs, reforms of the city of Madrid, control over the privileged classes, and price liberalization. These resulted in 1766 in the so-called “Esquilache Riots,” which had several implications. Later, with Campomanes, Aranda, and Floridablanca, action was taken on two fronts: church reform (gifts, ecclesiastical control from civil courts, limitation of legal rights, expulsion of the Jesuits, etc.); and education reform to economic reform, through the creation of the Banco de San Carlos, issuing real vouchers, an agrarian reform project, expansion of cultivation areas, colonization of depopulated areas, industry promotion, creation of the Royal Factories, liberalization of crafts, and economic liberalism (physiocracy), etc.
The Spanish Enlightenment
The introduction and spread of Enlightenment ideas in Spain were slow and difficult. There was a delay of several decades compared to some European countries, but, in essence, the same principles were expanded, and similar reforms were attempted. The absence of large bourgeois groups, the stagnation and conservatism of university intellectual circles, the enormous weight of the Church, and the lack of educated middle classes able to understand the theories of philosophers hampered the diffusion of the new stream of thought in the first part of the century. From 1750-1760, we find a generation of Spanish thinkers whose writings reflect the concerns of the Enlightenment and who begin to criticize the prevailing social model in Spain in the eighteenth century: Feijoo, Campomanes, Cadalso, Jovellanos, Aranda, Floridablanca, Olavide, Capmany, and so on. They were not a homogeneous group, but most agreed on the interest in science, critical thinking, and the idea of progress. Isolated between the indifference of the aristocracy and clergy and the ignorance of the masses, the Spanish Enlightenment made education the priority, the axis on which the change of the country was to rest. Convinced that only the improvement of cultural standards could lift it out of its backwardness, they fought against the religious orders and against the privileged classes and advocated the need to impose a useful and practical education, compulsory for all in the first levels, common to both sexes, and imbued with new knowledge and related to foreign countries. Another basic concern of the Spanish Enlightenment was the financial issue. All were aware that the country’s backwardness in relation to other European powers came from the survival of the strong predominance of aristocratic and ecclesiastical property, the excessive control over economic activities, and the lack of new techniques, inventions, and advances applied in other countries like Britain or the Netherlands. Therefore, they endeavored to study the real situation of the country and propose a series of reforms.
The 17th Century Habsburgs: Government and Internal Conflicts
Due to the extension of the territories, Charles I and Philip II had secretaries who were assistants to the king, who always reserved decisions. From Philip III onward, favorites governed all matters. Philip III had a weak will and rejected affairs of state, retreating into a religious ritual. His first favorite, the Duke of Lerma, had no political training or honesty. In turn, he had his own favorites, and trading favors and rights came to paralyze the administration due to corruption. His son and successor in the role of favorite, the Duke of Uceda, was more honest. Philip IV was 16 when he was crowned; his favorite, Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares—and Duke of Sanlúcar—led the young king to engage more in hobbies than in the State. After the crisis of 1640, he was replaced by his nephew, Don Luis de Haro. The sickly Charles II was five when his father died. His favorites were Nithard, Valenzuela, Juan José de Austria, the Duke of Medinaceli, and the Count of Oropesa. Later, the “Gang” was formed, a group of people without training or the ability to lead the country, who tried under the supervision of Queen Mariana of Neuburg. Internal conflict was the corruption of the administration. An example is the change of capital, led by the Duke of Lerma, from Madrid to Valladolid and back, which earned him substantial commissions (1601-1606). The bankruptcies of the early century were wiped out with the arrival of American silver and agreements with Genoese bankers, but their continuity and the inability to raise taxes forced the coinage of debased currency. In 1609, it was decided to expel the Moors. Philip II had decided to try to integrate them, but after that period, the Duke of Lerma took the measure of expulsion. The measure was popular; people understood that the Moors were hidden allies of the Turks. However, Aragonese and Valencian nobles resisted the measure, which deprived them of good settlers and cheap labor. The march affected about 300,000 people, and the consequences were dire in agriculture, especially in Aragon, Valencia, and Murcia. Other conflicts evolved around the crisis of 1640. Of particular importance was the problem of the succession of Charles II.