Spanish Empire in the 16th and 17th Centuries: A Deep Dive
Spain in the 16th Century: Economy and Society
The Spanish and European economies in the 16th century were heavily reliant on the Americas. The demand for gold and silver, along with their availability, shaped the economic landscape. The market diversified, and credit became more accessible. This period witnessed the emergence of a global market. American demand for agricultural products led to price increases and stimulated the cultivation of new lands. The system of short-term leases appeared more advantageous than the feudal system. In response to rising prices, the crown regulated the prices of agricultural products.
In society, the nobility was subject to the crown. The Laws of Toro, established in 1501, formalized primogeniture and transformed legal rights into privileges, such as tax exemptions and manorial courts. The nobility was classified, with the Grandees of Spain at the top. The church held significant influence, while the rural population often faced impoverishment.
Culture, Mentalities, and the Inquisition
Humanism, an ideology centered on human beings, was the dominant thought of the Renaissance. Erasmus of Rotterdam was a prominent humanist who sought to regenerate Christianity. The printing press facilitated the dissemination of all kinds of writings and knowledge. In Spain, the mentality was strongly influenced by Italy and Flanders. Individualism emerged alongside intellectuals, with its critical component of reform. Cardinal Cisneros founded the University of Alcalá, and Nebrija’s philological research resulted in the first Grammar.
Spain became isolated when studying abroad was banned, and the Council of Trent prohibited Lutheran books. The tribunal of the Inquisition aimed to monitor conversions, pursuing insincere converts. Its implementation in Aragon was particularly complicated, and its scope, highly repressive, ranged from witchcraft to homosexuality, also persecuting Protestants, including Calvinists.
The 17th-Century Habsburgs: Governance and Conflicts
The Habsburg monarchs delegated their governmental functions to their favorites, known as “validos,” who ruled in their place. During the reign of Philip III (1598-1621), his favorite, the Duke of Lerma, expelled the Moriscos, which dealt a blow to agriculture in Valencia.
Felipe IV (1621-1665) and his minister, the Count-Duke of Olivares, pushed for the Union of Arms. This policy required all territories of the crown to contribute economically and militarily. It led to revolts and uprisings, especially in Catalonia (a peasant revolt in Barcelona in 1640) and Portugal, which culminated in a war that ended in 1668 with Portugal’s independence. There were also revolts in Aragon, Valencia, and Andalusia, suppressed by the local nobility.
Finally, Carlos II (1665-1700) reigned during a period of misery, and his “validos” implemented various political and economic measures. Revolts reemerged in Catalonia (Revolt of the Barretines), Valencia (Second Germania against the lords), Valladolid, and Madrid, most notably the Mutiny of the Cats.
The Crisis of 1640
The crisis of 1640 was triggered by the Count-Duke of Olivares’ initiative, the Union of Arms, which demanded that all kingdoms of the crown provide troops and money to support the military effort in the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648). This, along with an increased tax burden, had significant consequences.
- Portugal refused obedience to Philip IV and crowned John IV, achieving independence after a war in 1668.
- In Andalusia, the Duke of Medina Sidonia attempted, unsuccessfully, to declare independence from the crown.
- In Catalonia, a peasant revolt erupted, resulting in the death of the Viceroy. The principality was offered to Louis XIII.
Felipe IV recovered Barcelona in 1652. These events, coupled with uprisings in Naples and riots caused by rising taxes, led to the resignation of the Count-Duke of Olivares in 1643.
Decline of the Spanish Empire in Europe
During the reign of Philip III, Spanish foreign policy experienced a period of peace. Peace with England was ratified in 1604, and the Twelve Years’ Truce was signed with the rebellious Flemish provinces after the peace of Antwerp in 1609.
With the arrival of Philip IV and his minister Olivares, a policy of hegemony was resumed. The intention was to defend the American monopoly against England and Holland, retain European territories, and defend Catholicism against Protestantism. This led Spain to participate in the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648). Clashes with the Protestant enemies of Austrian Catholics concluded in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia.
In the war with the Netherlands, France intervened in 1635 against Spain. This war ended in 1659 with the Peace of the Pyrenees. Portugal became independent in 1668 after the uprising of 1640. These wars resulted in the loss of numerous territories amidst scarce financial resources.