Spanish Crisis, Dictatorship, Republic, and the Road to WWII

Posted on Jan 19, 2026 in History

Crisis of the Spanish Restoration and Dictatorship (1900-1931)

In the early decades of the twentieth century, the political system of the Restoration entered its final crisis. This crisis was manifested in:

  • Popular Uprisings: Notably the Tragic Week in Barcelona.
  • General Strikes: The government managed to suppress strikes and negotiate with the military.
  • Government Instability: 13 governments were formed in rapid succession.
  • Rural Demonstrations: The Bolshevik Triennium (1918–1922) saw land occupations.
  • Industrial Demonstrations: Industry was paralyzed in 1919 during the 40-day strike known as La Canadiense.

This atmosphere of tension culminated in a Coup d’état and the dictatorship of General Miguel Primo de Rivera (1923–1931).

Proclamation of the Second Republic (April 14, 1931)

The Republic was proclaimed following municipal elections that resulted in a Republican majority.

The 1931 Constitution recognized:

  • Universal suffrage (male and female) and proclaimed the state’s aconfessionalidad (secular nature).
  • Broad public and private freedoms.
  • The separation of powers: the legislature in the Cortes, the executive in the cabinet, and the President of the Republic.
  • The acceptance of autonomous governments in some regions.

The political system was theoretically based on the alternation in power of two political parties, following the English model. However, the actual operation often distorted the vote.

Once the constitution was approved, Manuel Azaña formed a government composed of Republican, Socialist, and Nationalist political parties. The government undertook a series of Reforms:

  • Military, religious, and educational reforms.
  • Agrarian reform.
  • Autonomy granted to Catalonia and later to the Basque Country (PV).

Alas, these reforms faced strong opposition from large landowners, the hierarchy of the Catholic Church, a part of the army, and wide sectors of the upper and middle classes.

The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)

Following the victory of the Popular Front in 1936, right-wing extremists prepared a coup that broke out on July 17, 1936. The coup quickly turned into a Civil War because a portion of the Spanish army opposed the coup.

Internationalization of the Conflict

The war in Spain was seen as a conflict between democratic forces and evolutionary parties versus fascist regimes. This led to the internationalization of the conflict, involving Italy, Portugal, and Germany, which aided the coup against the Republic and Franco. Franco ultimately won the war, imposing a Dictatorship.

Fate of the Losing Side

The losing side faced severe consequences: some were persecuted, imprisoned, and others executed; many committed suicide or went into exile.

The Road to Global Conflict: Causes of World War II

1.1 Causes of the Second World War (WWII)

The origins of the Second World War must be sought in several key factors:

  1. Treaty of Versailles: Many Germans and Italians did not accept the impositions of Versailles.
  2. Revanchism and Economic Crisis: The Great Depression of 1929 created a context that favored the emergence of fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany.
  3. Aggressive Foreign Policy: Mussolini and especially Hitler developed an aggressive foreign policy and military expansionism, leading them to invade other countries.
  4. Arms Race: Fascist powers developed an intense arms race that encouraged a climate of aggression and tension.
  5. Weakness of Democracies: The failure of the League of Nations to address the aggressions of Nazi and fascist regimes.

1.2 The March to War: Authoritarian Aggressions

From the early 1930s, authoritarian states committed a series of wartime aggressions toward other countries:

  • Asia: Japan occupied Manchuria and China.
  • Africa: Italy occupied Ethiopia and Albania.
  • Intervention in Spain: Italy and Germany intervened in the Spanish Civil War, providing soldiers and arms, contrary to the non-intervention policy adopted by France and the UK.
  • Germany’s Violations: Contrary to the Treaty of Versailles, Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland (1936). Later, Germany militarily occupied Austria (1938) and subsequently occupied the Sudetenland.

1.3 Alliances and the Outbreak of Conflict

Expansionist policies were supported by a series of international treaties:

  • Germany signed an alliance with Italy, renewed in 1939 with the Pact of Steel.
  • The same year, Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan.

France and the UK committed to Poland to go to war if necessary. To prevent the USSR from allying with France and the UK to defend Poland, Hitler signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (Soviet-German Non-Aggression Pact) with Stalin.

2.1 Axis Victories (1939-1941)

After the Battle of Britain failed to defeat the UK, Hitler prepared to invade the islands. The Axis conquered North Africa, Yugoslavia, and Greece (April 1941). Deciding to emancipate from former allies, Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa, attacking Russia and quickly reaching the gates of Moscow and Leningrad. In December 1941, Japan attacked the American fleet at Pearl Harbor, leading the USA to enter the war.