Spanish Conflicts: Independence, Liberalism, and Succession
The War of Independence (1808-1814)
1808: The Beginning of the Conflict
In 1808, King Ferdinand VII was crowned after overthrowing his father in the Mutiny of Aranjuez. Napoleon then handed the crown to Joseph I. Napoleon enacted the Charter of Bayonne, a constitutional-looking statute.
May 2nd Uprising and Resistance
On May 2, 1808, the people of Madrid rebelled. A central supreme junta was formed, assuming sovereignty in the absence of Ferdinand VII. Part of the French army was defeated at the Battle of Bailén, forcing Joseph I to leave Madrid. Most of the peninsula was occupied after the Battle of Ocaña. Cádiz became the center of resistance.
Guerrilla Warfare and the End of the War
Between 1809 and 1813, guerrillas harassed the French. The allied army, led by the Duke of Wellington with British troops, attacked Spanish and Portuguese forces, winning the Battle of Arapiles. Ferdinand VII and Napoleon signed the Treaty of Valençay, ending the conflict.
The Constitution of Cadiz
The Board and Supreme Courts of Cádiz proclaimed national sovereignty. The deputies drafted the constitution, approved freedom of the press, abolished the Inquisition and unions, and established freedom of commerce and industry, ending the old regime. The liberal Constitution of 1812 established a bill of rights, recognized Ferdinand VII as king, but limited the royal prerogative and instituted the division of powers.
The Return of Absolutism and Liberal Struggles
Ferdinand VII’s Repression
The king suspended the constitution, reinstating the old regime.
The Liberal Triennium
In 1820, Colonel Riego advocated for the Constitution of 1812. The king had to yield and obey the Constitution. At the Congress of Verona, it was decided to intervene, and the French Army invaded Spain.
Restoration of Absolutism
The constitutional system collapsed, and Ferdinand VII regained absolute power. A second wave of repression targeted liberals. The king’s fourth marriage and the birth of Isabel sparked a succession dispute between her supporters and those of the Infante Don Carlos.
Loss of American Colonies
Rejection of Joseph I and Restoration of Spanish Rule
The American juntas of 1809 recognized Ferdinand VII as king and rejected Joseph I. By 1814, royalist troops restored Spanish rule in most places. However, in 1816, Argentina proclaimed its independence, followed by Chile and Gran Colombia.
Independence of Latin America
Ferdinand VII ceded Florida to the U.S. Mexico declared its independence, and the campaigns of General San Martín, Bolívar, and Sucre liberated South America. In 1824, the royalist army was defeated at the Battle of Ayacucho. Bolívar’s project to create a unified South America failed at the Panama Congress.
The Regency and the Carlist Wars
The Regency of Maria Cristina
The death of Ferdinand VII left his wife, Maria Cristina de Borbón, as regent, as Isabel was only three years old.
The First Carlist War
The civil war began in 1833 when the Infante Don Carlos refused to recognize his niece Elizabeth as queen. The Carlists shared opposition to liberalism, defending the traditional monarchy, the Roman Catholic religion, and the old laws. Carlism was strongest in the Basque Country and Navarre. The war had two fronts: the Basque-Navarrese front, which ended with the Convention of Vergara, and the Eastern Front, which ended in 1840.
Liberal Support and Reforms
Maria Cristina sought the support of the Liberals. Universities were reopened, a liberal amnesty was granted, and administrative reforms were undertaken. The Royal Charter of 1834 was a granted charter: the Crown granted the bicameral Cortes but retained control of legislative and executive powers. The Liberals were divided into moderates and progressives.
The Constitution of 1837
The Constitution of 1837 established a bicameral Cortes, census suffrage, placed overseas provinces under colonial rule, proclaimed freedom of the press, and institutionalized the national militia. The most important work of the Progressives was the confiscation of Church lands.
The Reign of Isabel II
Elizabeth II’s Accession
In 1843, Elizabeth II was declared an adult queen, though she was only 13. The army held significant political weight, and political parties were weak. The Crown favored the moderates.
The Moderate Decade (1844-1854)
The Constitution of 1845 imposed conservative principles: shared sovereignty, restriction of individual rights, restricted electoral rights, and administrative centralism. The Civil Guard was created, and understanding with the Church was restored.
The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)
A pronouncement led to a progressive government and a second disentailment, primarily affecting municipal lands.
The Second Moderate Period (1856-1868)
This period saw a prestigious foreign policy, and the Liberal Union was founded. In 1868, a military coup overthrew Elizabeth II, who went into exile in France.
The Democratic Sexennium
This period followed the overthrow of Elizabeth II.