Spanish Colonization of the Americas: Aztecs, Incas, and New Spain
The Spanish Colonization of the Americas
The Aztec Empire (1519-1521) and the Conquest of Mexico
In 1519, Hernán Cortés, commissioned by Diego Velasquez (Governor of Cuba), left Cuba to conquer the Aztec Empire. He landed in Yucatan and founded Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz, where he established a council and was appointed Captain General and Chief Justice.
News of Cortés’ presence reached Tenochtitlan. Believing him to be the vengeful god Quetzalcoatl, the Aztecs initially offered no resistance. In 1519, Cortés entered Tenochtitlan and took Montezuma prisoner.
Diego Velasquez sent Pánfilo de Narváez with an army to defeat Cortés. However, Cortés defeated Narváez, and Narváez’s army joined Cortés. Cortés’ absence was used by the Aztecs to rebel against the few remaining Spanish guards. Montezuma died during the uprising, and Cortés was accused of his death. Unable to resist the rebels, Cortés was forced to flee.
The conquistadors, pursued by Prince Cuauhtémoc, were decimated. However, with the help of the Aztecs’ enemies, a few survived. Cortés prepared a final attack from Tlaxcala, relying on reinforcements from Cuba. The attack culminated in the defeat of the last Aztec emperor after the Battle of Otumba.
Cortés destroyed Tenochtitlan and established Mexico City in its place, the future capital of the Viceroyalty of New Spain (1535).
The Inca Empire (1527/28-1535)
The Inca Empire was the largest empire in South America, ruled by the Sapa Inca, believed to be descended from the god Viracocha. Francisco Pizarro, using Cortés’ strategies, conquered the Inca Empire. After the Inca emperor’s death, his sons, Atahualpa and Huáscar, fought a civil war for the throne. Pizarro murdered Atahualpa, blaming Huáscar. Later, he murdered a puppet king he had installed in Atahualpa’s place, Manco Inca, who eventually led his people in a war against the invaders. Cuzco became the capital of the future Viceroyalty of Peru, where the conquistadors eventually turned on each other, ending with Viceroy Lagasca.
Characteristics of the Spanish Settlement
- Cultural alteration in both Spanish and Indigenous societies.
- A significant population decline in the West Indies, particularly due to epidemics.
- The myth of bloodless conquest by the Spanish was dispelled.
- The Indigenous population experienced cultural and existential fracturing.
- The Spanish Crown encouraged migration to the colonies, which continued into the 17th century.
Exploitation of Indigenous Peoples
The Queen’s will ordered that the Indigenous people be Christianized and treated with respect. However, some religious thinkers believed that weaker nations should be subjugated by stronger ones. To ensure the Christianization of Indigenous people, the encomienda system was established. A Spanish settler (encomendero) was granted a group of Indigenous people to work the land in exchange for religious instruction and protection. However, the system was rife with abuse and near-slave labor. Charles V abolished it in 1542.
Another system of subjugation was the mita. Indigenous people worked in the mines every other week for a year. The mortality rate was very high, leading Charles V to allow the importation of enslaved Africans. The mita was abolished by the Cortes of Cádiz in 1812.
In repartimientos, Indigenous people were assigned to a Spaniard who would instruct and protect them in exchange for labor and a salary, unlike the encomiendas. Naborías, porteros, and yanaconas were Indigenous people who voluntarily chose to serve a Spaniard.
Economy and Trade
The colonial economy was based on agriculture and mining. The Spanish introduced grapes, olives, and wheat, while America exported potatoes, corn, coffee, and cocoa. Mining, especially of gold and silver, was a major source of wealth. Trade occurred once a year via the galleon, also known as the Flota de Indias, which carried gold, silver, pearls, and spices.
Colonial Administration
Viceroys
Viceroys, chosen from the Castilian nobility, governed the colonies with significant power. Initially, there were two viceroyalties: New Spain (1535) and Peru (1543). They were the most powerful institutions in Hispanic America, with executive control and oversight of the governors.
Audiencias
Audiencias were responsible for the administration of justice and also had advisory and governing functions. Lower levels of justice were handled by governors, magistrates, and mayors.
Governors
Administrative districts were similar to provinces. Border regions were designated as Captaincies General. Governors had administrative, judicial, and military powers.
Districts
Smaller administrative divisions, similar to governorates but with smaller jurisdictions, were called districts. They were presided over by magistrates and town councils, which formed the basis of local governance.