Spanish Civil War: Origins, Key Events, and Aftermath
The Spanish Civil War: Origins, Key Events, and Aftermath
The Outbreak of Conflict (July 1936)
In July 1936, a section of the army, along with Falangists and traditionalists, staged a coup against the Second Spanish Republic. The rebels quickly gained strength. On July 19, José Giral, then Prime Minister, gave weapons to the militias of the unions and parties aligned with the Popular Front. Spain was thus divided into two distinct areas, marking the brutal outbreak of the Civil War.
International Repercussions and Alliances
The year 1936 saw a tense situation across Europe, and the Spanish Civil War had significant international repercussions. The rebels received substantial support from Germany, Italy, and Portugal. In contrast, France and Britain maintained a policy of non-intervention, effectively closing their doors to the Republic. Only the USSR and some international volunteers provided aid to the Republican cause.
The Republican Zone: Revolution and Internal Strife
The defense of the Republic led to the formation of committees that occupied and collectivized factories, and confiscated land for distribution. This revolutionary process was driven by central forces, including union workers, the CNT (Confederación Nacional del Trabajo), and various activist groups. It unleashed strong anti-clerical sentiment, with any bourgeois or aristocratic religious symbol often persecuted as an enemy of the revolution. In September 1936, a new socialist government, headed by Largo Caballero, was formed, attempting to control the revolutionary fervor. Militias were subsequently merged into a unified People’s Army.
However, military failures led to significant divisions within the Republican forces. Republicans, communists, and socialists largely defended the need to halt the revolutionary process and prioritize the war effort. Anarchists and Trotskyists, conversely, opposed some government policies, leading to an armed clash in Barcelona in May 1937. Following these events, Juan Negrín formed a new government. This administration asserted control over the committees, liquidated some of the collectives, and dedicated its primary efforts to the war. Negrín proclaimed a policy of “resistance to the death” to support the strengthening of state institutions and the People’s Army.
The Nationalist Zone: Franco’s Rise and State Building
In the Nationalist-controlled areas, the primary organ of power was the Defense Junta. On October 1, 1936, Francisco Franco was appointed Generalissimo of the Nationalist forces and Head of Government. In April 1937, he united various political forces into the FET y de las JONS (Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista). A year later, the first Franco government was established. The new state championed a social model based on conservatism and the primacy of Catholicism. One of its initial objectives was to dismantle Republican reforms, abolishing labor legislation, social reforms, religious freedom, and regional autonomy statutes.
The institutionalization of Franco’s regime in these areas was marked by systematic persecution. Repression affected all those who had supported the Republic and those who did not demonstrate their unwavering attachment to the new regime.
Geographical Division and Military Campaigns
By July 1936, Spain was divided into two distinct zones: the rebel-controlled areas, primarily agricultural and politically conservative, and the Republican zone, encompassing major cities, industrial centers, and labor strongholds.
The initial strategy of the rebels was to advance from the South towards Madrid. The Republican government had relocated to Valencia. Despite attempts to enter the capital, the rebels failed, and in 1937, Franco decided to shift his military focus.
Key Military Engagements:
- Battle of the North (April-October 1937): Franco’s troops launched an offensive against the northern cities. On April 26, the infamous bombing of Guernica occurred, and in June, Bilbao was captured. Republicans attempted counter-offensives, such as those at Belchite or Brunete, but could not prevent the fall of Santander and Asturias.
- Battle of the Ebro (1938): In 1938, rebel troops reached the Mediterranean, effectively isolating Catalonia from the rest of Republican territory. The Republican government concentrated its efforts on the Battle of the Ebro. By November 1938, the Republicans were forced to retreat on the banks of the Ebro. Barcelona was taken on January 26, 1939, and Franco’s troops subsequently reached the French border.
The End of the War and Republican Exile
In February 1939, a coup in Madrid created a junta that unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate with Franco. On April 1, 1939, a communiqué declared the conflict ended. With their defeat, Republicans went into exile, fearing Franco’s severe repression. Many Spanish Republicans exiled to France participated in the resistance against the Nazis at the outbreak of World War II. Some were confined in concentration camps, while others sought refuge in Latin America or the USSR. The Republican government in exile was eventually established in Mexico.