Spanish Civil War: History, Politics, and Consequences

The Spanish Civil War

Causes and Start

The Spanish Civil War stemmed from rising tensions between left-wing factions and the Catholic Church, worker agitation, and controversial government decisions. This discontent culminated in an uprising against the Popular Front government, starting in Morocco on July 17, 1936. The war, lasting nearly three years, saw the Nationalist forces led by General Franco gradually conquer the country. This conflict marked the culmination of the crisis in the Spanish oligarchic system established in 1875.

Key factors contributing to the war included:

• Social issues: Land reform and worker rights.
• Regional problems: Basque and Catalan autonomy versus centralism.
• International context: The rise of fascism, fueled by the 1929 crisis and leftist resistance.

International involvement was evident from the outset.

The War in Catalonia

By April 1939, General Franco’s forces reached the Mediterranean, isolating Catalonia from the remaining Republican areas. Franco’s decree abolished the Statute of Autonomy, and Catalan cities endured heavy bombardments. April 1st marked the end of the war in Catalonia.

International Support

Republican Support

The Republic received primarily Soviet support in arms and supplies. International volunteers, including notable figures like André Malraux, George Orwell, Josip Broz Tito, and Willy Brandt, joined the International Brigades. Approximately 40,000 volunteers from 50 countries fought, with a third losing their lives.

Nationalist Support

Nationalist forces received support from the German Condor Legion (aircraft and tanks), Italian Blackshirts, and Portuguese Salazarist regime. The Portuguese border facilitated connections between the northern and southern fronts, and Moroccan troops also provided support.

Non-Intervention Doctrine

France and Britain adopted a cynical policy of non-intervention, endorsed by the League of Nations, treating the conflict as an internal Spanish matter. Despite evidence of fascist intervention, the League refused to act, imposing a boycott that primarily affected Republican arms shipments. These materials accumulated at the French border, later falling into Franco’s hands.

Military Developments

• 1936: Nationalist occupation of the south (except Madrid and Málaga) and north (except Basque Country and Asturias). The failed offensive on Madrid led to the battles of Jarama and Guadalajara.
• 1937: Málaga and the Basque Country fell, leaving vital steel resources in Franco’s control. The northern offensive included the battles of Brunete and Belchite.
• 1938: Franco focused on Madrid, while Republicans targeted Extremadura. Key events included the Aragon Offensive, the Battle of Teruel, the Valencia Offensive, and the Battle of the Ebro (July-November), marked by trench warfare.
• 1939: Catalonia and Madrid fell, ending the war.

Political Developments

Franco’s Side

On July 25, 1936, the “Junta de Defensa” was established in Burgos, chaired by General Cabanellas. Measures included abolishing the Republican flag and political parties (while tolerating fascist groups), labeling the coup a “saving movement,” and merging Falangist and Carlist factions into a single party. Franco consolidated power after the deaths of Sanjurjo, Mola, and Goded.

Republican Side

The Republican-Socialist coalition’s power was limited by communist influence. Two contrasting war strategies emerged:

1. Moderate (Republican/communist/moderate socialist): Strengthen the army under professional leadership to defeat the rebels, postponing social reforms.
2. Radical (socialist/anarchist/POUM): Empower a people’s army driven by revolutionary enthusiasm.

Franco’s Dictatorship

A New Political System

Franco’s victory granted him control as head of state and government, ruling for nearly forty years until his death in 1975.

Suppression of Liberties

The regime lacked a constitution, with all officials appointed by Franco. Democratic liberties were abolished, including political parties and unions. Freedom of association, assembly, and the press were severely restricted.

Post-War Period

The long post-war period extended into the 1950s, focusing on rebuilding the devastated country. The government promoted agricultural production through irrigation projects and implemented autarky to develop industry.

Consequences of the War

Franco’s pursuit of total victory resulted in the suppression of democracy, a one-party totalitarian regime, economic autarky, intellectual diaspora, repression (around 200,000 victims after the war), alignment with Nazism, and economic decline until approximately 1957.

Franco’s Dictatorship: World War II and Isolation (1939-1945)

The early post-war regime resembled German Nazism and Italian Fascism. Widespread poverty and imprisonment marked this period, with an estimated one in nine Spaniards imprisoned and over 25,000 executed. In Catalonia, over 350,000 people faced repression, and more than 3,000 were executed between 1939 and 1953. By 1945, the global landscape shifted, with the Axis powers defeated and democracy triumphant. Franco’s Spain became isolated, excluded from the newly formed UN. The regime’s fascist principles continued until around 1959. Opposition groups like the National Front of Catalonia and the Catalan Socialist Movement faced resistance and arrests.

The End of Isolation and Economic Change (1951-1963)

Growing Cold War tensions led to Spain’s inclusion in Western alliances. By 1957, economic difficulties prompted the implementation of a stabilization plan. Living standards gradually improved. Symbolic events in Catalonia included Josep Tarradellas’s election as president of the Catalan government-in-exile.

The Economic Miracle (1963-1973)

The Organic Law of the State (1966) was passed through a flawed referendum. In 1969, Franco named Prince Juan Carlos as his successor. Europe’s economic expansion created jobs, attracting workers from less developed countries. The Assembly of Catalonia emerged as a diverse platform advocating for democratic freedoms, amnesty for political prisoners, and autonomy.

Crisis and End of the Franco Era (1973-1975)

Franco’s final years were marked by worker demonstrations, strikes, terrorist attacks, and economic crisis fueled by rising oil prices. In 1974, Franco’s health declined, leading to Prince Juan Carlos temporarily assuming power. Franco’s death on November 20, 1975, marked the end of an era in Spanish history.

Characteristics of Francoism

Franco’s dictatorship rested on Spanish nationalism, Catholicism, and military authority, presented as an “organic democracy” opposing parliamentary systems. After World War II, the Fuero de los Españoles (July 17, 1945) diminished the Falange’s role, emphasizing Catholicism. The regime sought new alliances, and in the 1960s, Opus Dei-trained technocrats entered the government, breaking Spain’s international isolation. Key characteristics of the dictatorship included:

• Lack of Constitution: Liberalism and universal suffrage were rejected.
• Absence of Parties: Political parties were banned.
• Concentration of Power: Franco held legislative power through decrees.
• Restrictions on Freedoms: Association and assembly were tightly controlled.
• Control of Information: The press faced censorship.
• Military Control: The armed forces maintained order.
• Vertical Unions: Unions were subordinate to the government, and strikes were prohibited.