Spanish Civil War & Franco’s Regime (1936-1975): Political Developments
Political Developments in Republican Spain
Key Figures
Left Republicans: Prime Minister José Giral
Socialists: Francisco Largo Caballero, Juan Negrín (Socialist leaning towards Communism)
Social Revolution
A failed military uprising met with resistance from party members and unions, sparking a social-collectivist revolutionary process. This involved the rejection of private property but not the destruction of the state church. The CNT, FAI, and UGT played key roles in the revolution, with the anarchist movement being particularly influential in Barcelona, participating in the regional government chaired by Lluís Companys.
The collectivist revolution targeted perceived class enemies (bourgeoisie, clergy, landowners), leading to seizures, requisitions, and extrajudicial killings (paseos). Landowners and clergy often went into hiding or emigrated to rebel-held territory. Anarchist models of social organization were implemented in some areas.
Political Evolution
State bankruptcy and inability to enforce the law led to Casares’s resignation and replacement by José Giral. Giral’s government armed militias, dissolved the regular army, and created volunteer forces. State power collapsed, replaced by regional councils composed of union and worker party members.
Giral was replaced by Largo Caballero, a shift further left, recognizing the power of the labor movement. The Republican government comprised Socialists, Communists, and Anarchists. Its objectives were to create an anti-fascist alliance, reconstruct the state, and create a popular army to win the war.
Problems included enmity between Anarchists, Socialists, and Communists, power struggles, and the revolutionary aspirations of the Anarchists. The May 1937 crisis saw clashes between the CNT and POUM (Workers’ Party of Marxist Unification), resulting in a Communist victory, the dissolution of the POUM, and fighting between Largo Caballero and the Communists.
Negrín replaced Largo Caballero after clashes with the increasingly influential Communists, who received aid from the USSR. Indalecio Prieto, Minister of War, opposed the Communists. Negrín’s policy focused on resistance, hoping for a negotiated end to the war. He requested the withdrawal of foreign troops (Italian and German) with guarantees of no retaliation, allowing Spain to decide its destiny through democratic elections and maintain the Republic. The Munich Pact (1938) complicated matters by recognizing Germany’s annexation of the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. The Battles of Teruel and the Ebro led to exhaustion and discouragement among combatants and civilians.
Political Developments in Nationalist Spain (Franco)
Franco’s supporting groups had diverse political projects, united by the army. The National Defense Committee, formed in Burgos, assumed control, with Cabanellas as president. Measures included suspending the 1931 Constitution, dissolving political parties, and halting land reform. After Sanjurjo’s death, Franco’s prestige grew with the liberation of the Alcázar of Toledo. Support from Hitler and Mussolini followed. On October 1st, Franco was proclaimed Head of State and Generalissimo. A single party, the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS, was formed, modeled on Italian Fascism.
Opposition and dissent arose within the Falange (Hedilla), the Carlists (Fal Conde), and other factions.
International Dimension of the Civil War
International Reactions
France: Public opinion was divided, with the government exercising caution while some right-wing elements supported Franco. Great Britain: The government favored prudence, seeing Franco as a bulwark against Communism. Catholics worldwide and the Vatican supported Franco. Portugal: Supported Franco. USSR: Supported the Republic. Media in democratic countries were generally pro-Republican, portraying the war as a struggle against Fascism. Germany and Italy supported Franco.
Non-Intervention Committee
The Non-Intervention Committee aimed to prevent foreign aid to the warring parties. Germany and Italy violated the agreement, providing weapons, aircraft (Junkers and Savoia), and men (CTV). Great Britain and France pursued appeasement to avoid a world war, leading to the Munich Pact (1938). The USSR also violated the agreement.
Foreign Aid
The USSR sent arms in exchange for gold from the Bank of Spain. Military advisors and political commissars accompanied the supplies, exerting ideological control. This aid significantly influenced the Spanish Communist Party (PCE). The International Brigades, recruited by the Comintern, comprised around 60,000 volunteers by 1938.
Franco received tanks, aircraft, and men from Germany and Italy, paid for through mining concessions. Foreign volunteers, including Catholics and right-wing extremists from various European countries, also joined Franco’s side.
Consequences of the War
Casualties
The war resulted in numerous deaths from combat, bombing, injuries, and repression on both sides.
Repression
From the start of the war (July-November 1936), both sides engaged in indiscriminate persecution. Nationalists “cleansed” occupied areas (Badajoz, Málaga, Seville) of enemies, resulting in widespread killings, including prominent figures like Federico García Lorca and Manuel José Quintana. Republicans retaliated through party militias and unions. Anarchist-controlled patrols conducted checas (clandestine prisons) and paseos. Mass repression occurred in Paracuellos del Jarama (Madrid). Prominent figures assassinated included José Antonio Primo de Rivera, Onésimo Redondo, Ramiro Ledesma Ramos, and Melquíades Álvarez.
Exile
Refugees fled to eastern Spain, Catalonia, and Madrid as Franco’s troops advanced. Around 14,000 children were evacuated, mostly to the USSR (80%) and other European countries, managed by Quakers and Communists. At the war’s end, around 500,000 Spaniards fled to France, of whom 250,000 returned. Many of those remaining were interned in concentration camps. Around 250,000 chose to fight against the Nazis rather than remain in the camps. Refugees ended up in the French army, concentration camps, Nazi Germany, the USSR, or Latin America.
Franco’s Regime (1939-1959)
Ideological and Political Foundations
The new regime concentrated power in Franco. The Cold War strengthened the regime due to its anti-communist stance. The Church legitimized the dictatorship in exchange for influence over social life and education. National unity was promoted, suppressing regional autonomy and emphasizing Castilian Spanish. Traditionalism, militarism, and fascist traits (until 1945) characterized the regime.
Social Bases
The regime relied on the landed oligarchy, which regained its hegemony and benefited from interventionist economic policies. Rural populations in Castile, influenced by Catholicism, also supported the regime. Urban middle and working classes provided less support initially, but this changed with economic development in the 1960s.
Political Bases
The regime banned political parties and repressed Republican supporters. The FET de las JONS (later Movimiento Nacional) became the single party in 1937. Different political families within the party, including the Falange, the military, Catholics (including Opus Dei), and Monarchists, vied for influence. Franco maintained a balance of power, preventing any faction from becoming too powerful.
Political Developments and International Situation (1939-1959)
Organic Laws institutionalized the regime. The Fuero del Trabajo (1938) banned free trade unions and established a state-controlled union. The Cortes (1942) were elected through rigged elections. The Fuero de los Españoles (1945) theoretically outlined rights but lacked real guarantees. The Law of Succession (1946) declared Spain a kingdom, with Franco reserving the right to choose his successor.
Post-War Hunger and Repression
The 1940s were marked by hunger and rationing, leading to a widespread black market. The Law of Political Responsibilities (1939) facilitated harsh repression, with numerous political prisoners and executions.
Foreign Policy
Spain initially allied with the Axis powers, joining the Anti-Comintern Pact in 1939. Franco met with Hitler in 1940, but Spain did not formally enter World War II. The Blue Division fought alongside German troops. After the Axis defeat, Franco shifted towards conciliation with the Allies.
International Isolation and Regime Changes
The UN condemned the regime in 1946. Spain was excluded from the Marshall Plan and NATO. The Cold War and U.S. hostility towards the USSR led to a shift in U.S. policy. In 1950, the UN recommended ending Spain’s diplomatic isolation. Bilateral agreements with the U.S. in 1953 allowed for U.S. military bases in Spain and economic aid. A concordat with the Vatican was also signed in 1953.
Internal Politics
The 1950s saw the first protests against the regime, including student incidents in Madrid (1956) and a tram boycott in Barcelona (1951). The appointment of Opus Dei ministers in 1957 marked a turning point. The Stabilization Plan of 1959 aimed to liberalize the economy.
Franco’s Regime (1959-1975) and Opposition
Political Developments
Spain joined the IMF and World Bank in the late 1950s. Economic prosperity did not lead to political opening, causing tensions between the Church and the regime, Basque nationalism (ETA’s formation in 1959), and labor disputes (strikes in the 1960s). Spain’s application to the EEC was hampered by political repression (Grimau’s execution in 1963). Juan Carlos was appointed successor in 1969. Carrero Blanco’s assassination in 1973 was a blow to the regime. Arias Navarro’s government continued repression, executing Puig Antich in 1974 and two FRAP members in 1975. Franco’s illness and the Western Sahara conflict weakened the regime. Franco died on November 20, 1975.
Economic Evolution
The 1959 Stabilization Plan liberalized the economy. From 1961, the economy grew rapidly, driven by foreign investment. Industrial expansion led to rural-urban migration and agricultural mechanization. A balance of payments deficit emerged due to tourism and foreign investment. Overall growth from 1961-1973 was high and constant.
Social Evolution
Rural-urban migration transformed Spanish society. Economic growth led to population growth and increased demand for education. Healthcare improved with expanded benefits. The concentration of population in cities changed lifestyles and mentalities. Female labor force participation increased. Television became widespread. Consumerism grew in the 1960s and 1970s, symbolized by the Seat 600. Social and cultural changes occurred, including changing religious practices and new social and sexual relations.
Opposition to the Regime
After the war, many opponents went into exile. Some joined the resistance against Franco or emigrated to the USSR. The PCE renounced guerrilla warfare in 1944. Protests in 1951 and university protests in 1956 strengthened the underground opposition. Labor unrest and university protests continued in the 1960s. Opposition also arose within the Catholic Church after Vatican II. Underground worker parties and groups developed, including the PCE, PSOE (led by Felipe González), left-wing parties, liberal parties, monarchists, Christian Democrats, Social Democrats, and nationalist parties (PNV, ERC, CDC led by Jordi Pujol, and ETA).