Spanish Civil War: Causes, Key Events, and Outcomes
The Spanish Civil War
I. Causes, Development, and Stages
A. The Uprising and Initial Stages (July 1936)
The Popular Front’s victory in the February 1936 elections, supported by a sector of the army and the Carlist monarchist Falange, set the stage for conflict. The assassination of MP Calvo Sotelo, coordinated by General Mola, served as the pretext for the uprising, which began in Melilla on July 17, led by General Franco. The head of government, Casares Quiroga, initially took no action and resigned the following day. Revolts followed in Seville (led by Queijo de Llano) and Pamplona (led by Mola). The coup failed in several provinces, dividing the territory into rebel-controlled areas (Canary Islands, Balearic Islands, and North Africa) and Republican-controlled areas (including the isolated Cantabrian zone).
B. The Fight for Madrid (July 1936 – March 1937)
From July 1936 to March 1937, the focus shifted to Madrid. Rebel troops moved from Africa to Andalusia, with Yagüe advancing towards Extremadura (marked by the Badajoz repression). In the north, Mola secured Irun and San Sebastian, isolating the Basque Country from the border. Franco’s troops advanced towards Madrid, detouring to “liberate” the Alcazar of Toledo in September 1937. The attack on Madrid was met with fierce resistance. The Republican government relocated to Valencia on November 2nd, leaving the capital under the control of a Defense Board led by General Miaja.
C. The Northern Campaign and the Battle of the Ebro (1937-1938)
Recognizing the war’s protracted nature, both sides reorganized. The Nationalists launched two unsuccessful attempts to conquer Madrid: the Battle of Jarama (February 1937) from the south and the Battle of Guadalajara (March 1937) from the north, the latter involving Italian troops. The focus shifted to the north, a vital industrial and armaments center. Mola concentrated forces against the Basque Country (including the bombing of Guernica by the German Condor Legion), conquering it between March and June 1937. After Mola’s death, his successor, General Davila, conquered Santander and Asturias, effectively eliminating Republican control in the north. The Republicans briefly took Teruel, but Franco’s forces recaptured it and advanced towards the Mediterranean, reaching Vinaroz in April 1938. A major offensive aimed at uniting the two Republican zones led to the Battle of the Ebro in late 1938, the war’s bloodiest. Franco’s offensive forced a Republican retreat.
D. The Catalan Offensive and the End of the War (Late 1938 – April 1939)
The Nationalist army launched its final offensive in Catalonia in December 1938. Republicans fled to France. Barcelona fell on January 26th. The Republican government went into exile after failed negotiations with Franco. Following Catalonia’s conquest, divisions within the Republican side emerged, culminating in Colonel Casado’s coup in March 1939. Negotiations with Franco resulted in unconditional surrender. Franco’s troops entered Madrid on March 28th, and he officially declared the war’s end on April 1st.
II. Key Factors in Franco’s Victory
- Greater foreign support
- Superior organization and discipline of the rebel army
- Consistent Nationalist initiative
III. Evolution of the Republican Side
Following the uprising, Casares resigned, and the Republican Giral formed a new government, which struggled to assert authority against the powerful UGT and CNT trade unions and workers’ parties. The summer of 1936 witnessed a social revolution, with cooperatives established in Aragon and Catalonia, where anarchists collectivized factories and land. This dispersion and inadequate military policy led Azaña to appoint the socialist Largo Caballero as head of a Popular Front government in September 1936. The government granted autonomy to the Basque Country and attempted to control party militias. Clashes with anarchists and Trotskyist Communists (POUM) in 1937 led to the POUM’s dismantling. Caballero resigned, and Negrín formed a new government in Barcelona. Negrín eventually clashed with Azaña and resigned. To finance the war, the Republic issued public debt and used the Bank of Spain’s reserves (“the gold in Moscow”).
IV. The Nationalist Regime
The state’s interim body, the National Defense Board, was established on July 24th in rebel-held towns, declaring martial law and suppressing civil rights. Only the Falange and Carlists retained their activity and symbols. Ideologically, the uprising was presented as a national movement against Marxism. In September 1936, Franco was appointed head of state and generalissimo, later becoming known as “Caudillo.” A technical board advised him, but he made all decisions. The Unification Decree of April 1937 merged all Nationalist political groups into the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS. In July 1937, Spanish bishops supported the uprising as a crusade. The first Nationalist government was formed in January 1938, enacting laws concentrating power in Franco, controlling the press, establishing labor courts, and annulling Republican civil laws. The Law of Political Responsibilities followed in February 1939. Economically, the Nationalists controlled most cereal-producing lands and significant potato, vegetable, and sugar production. Production was strictly controlled, with support given to entrepreneurs, landowners, and banks. Despite lacking monetary reserves, they received substantial foreign aid.