Spanish Civil War (1936-1939): Causes, Development, and Consequences
Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
Historical Circumstances
The underlying problems of the working class persisted, with wealth concentrated among the elite. This led to a divided society, pitting the right-wing (supported by the Church) against the left-wing (representing the workers).
Remote Causes
- Opposition to liberal revolutions.
- Ideological clashes within the Spanish army.
- Limited modernization, including an unfair distribution of land.
- Influence of dominant European ideologies like Fascism, Nazism, and Communism.
Proximate Causes
The economic and social crisis of the 1930s led to radical solutions being considered across Europe. While some countries pursued democratic reformism (France and the UK), others embraced Fascism (Germany and Italy) or Communist Revolution (USSR). In Spain, a faction of the army staged a coup with the intent of overthrowing the Republic, triggering the war.
Background to the Conflict
In February 1936, President Alcalá Zamora instructed Azaña to form a government. This government intensified land reform, expanded educational policies, granted amnesty to political prisoners, and re-established and approved the Catalan, Basque, and Galician autonomy statutes. Alcalá Zamora was dismissed in April 1936, and Casares Quiroga became president.
Public order deteriorated, marked by rural violence, strikes, land occupations, attacks on churches and convents, and political violence from the extreme right. The CNT adopted a revolutionary and anti-republican stance, and divisions within the PSOE deepened. The military revolt was framed as an effort to save Spain from a perceived Communist dictatorship.
War Development
The war began in 1936, with Franco initiating the uprising in Melilla, Africa. Army commanders loyal to the Republic were executed. The rebel uprising, led by figures like Queipo, did not succeed everywhere, resulting in a divided country. Rural Spain (Castile, Aragon, Galicia, etc.) largely fell to the rebels, while the rest of Spain remained loyal to the Republic. The population was not given a choice. The Republic struggled to maintain social order, with local committees and councils abusing their power and engaging in violence against clergy. In areas controlled by Franco’s forces, authorities were replaced, and widespread killings occurred.
International Dimension
Many countries offered verbal support to the Republic, but a non-intervention committee was formed to prevent the supply of war materials. However, Germany and Italy aided Franco with manpower and military equipment.
Phases of War
First Months (July-December 1936)
An attempt to take Madrid failed, and the Republican government relocated to Valencia.
Battle of Jarama and the Ebro (January 1937-November 1938)
Franco focused on Andalusia, Asturias, and the Basque Country. Republican offensives at Jarama and Guadalajara failed. Guernica was bombed by General Mola. Franco divided the Republican zone, separating Catalonia in the north from Valencia and Alicante in the south.
Occupation of Catalonia, Madrid, and Final Surrender (December 1938-April 1939)
The Republican government crossed the border, along with thousands of people. Franco took Madrid. Alicante was the last city occupied.
Republican Zone
Large sections of the economy were collectivized, leading to a power struggle between the government, the CNT, and the FAI over land and factories. Landowners were persecuted. In 1937, the Republican government regained control from the people’s committees and restored power to the competent authorities.
Francoist Zone
Following the deaths of General Mola and General Sanjurjo, Franco consolidated power and established a technocratic state. Land was returned to owners, officials were purged, educational reforms were canceled, and political parties and unions were prohibited, except for the Falange.
Violence and Repression
Personal hatred and ideological sectarianism fueled violence. Republicans were often anticlerical and killed people, while Nationalists killed even more.
Consequences
The war was one of the most traumatic events of the 20th century for Spain. Thousands of intellectuals and teachers abandoned Spain or were assassinated. The Generation of ’27 and many artists were murdered or exiled. There were over half a million deaths and 250,000 people imprisoned. The economically active population decreased, poverty increased, modernization and democracy ended, and freedom was lost. Internationally, Spain faced political isolation.