Spanish Civil War (1936-1939): A Concise Overview
Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
1. The Uprising
The conspiracy for a right-wing coup was unprecedented in the past 36 years. Despite knowing of the preparations, the Republican government reacted late and ineffectively. They sent generals considered dangerous to various locations: Mola to Pamplona, Franco to the Canary Islands, and Goded to Majorca.
General Mola led the conspiracy, aiming to shift the country towards the political right. The plan involved a declaration of war by state officials or captain generals loyal to the government. However, imposing control in major cities was risky due to the strength of the trade unions.
The uprising was presented as an attack against the Popular Front government and revolutionary trends, leading to the participation of some Republicans. General Franco, with prestige from campaigns in Morocco, joined the uprising. The assassination of José Calvo Sotelo, leader of the National Bloc, by Republican public order forces, accelerated the uprising.
Starting in Melilla on July 17, the uprising quickly spread through the Moroccan protectorate. Franco secured the Canary Islands and went to Tetuan to control the rebels. The uprising’s outcome varied across the peninsula. It failed in Madrid, where armed workers defended the city. In Barcelona, anarchists prevented General Goded from taking control. In Valencia and other cities, the uprising was insufficient against popular forces.
The uprising succeeded in Zaragoza, Seville, Granada, and Cordoba. In the north, Galicia, León, and Old Castile joined. Mola controlled Navarre. Asturias, Santander, and the Basque Country (except Álava) remained loyal to the Republic, becoming isolated. The islands, except Menorca, joined the uprising. The uprising was successful in agricultural Spain but failed in industrial areas.
The events of July 17-18 transformed a military pronouncement into a social and ideological struggle. The statement triggered a political and social revolution in Republican territory. In areas where the uprising succeeded, a violent reaction unfolded, attacking democratic and liberal forms.
The upper classes and many army officers supported the uprising. The popular classes resisted on the Republican side. The middle class was divided, primarily due to ideological reasons and the defense of their interests. The Catalan and Basque bourgeoisie, despite being conservative and Catholic, sided with the Republic to protect their autonomy statutes.
2. Terms of War
The Republican side held financial resources and mining/industrial areas, but several factors offset these advantages:
- Significant revolutionary disruption caused by the outbreak hindered the establishment of an organized military force.
- Internal political differences hampered war efforts.
The Nationalist side benefited from:
- A large proportion of disciplined professional officers and more troops (including the Legion and Moroccan troops).
- A militarized state focused on victory.
Foreign intervention played a role:
- Italy and Germany (Condor Legion) supported the Nationalist side, while the USSR backed the Republic.
- France initially aided the Republic but later joined England in signing the Non-Intervention Pact.
- International Brigades, composed of volunteers from various countries, joined the Republican side.
- Consistent aid from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy contrasted with irregular Soviet and international support for the Republic due to geographical, political, and economic factors, significantly impacting the war’s outcome.
These conditions explain the general course of the war, with Nationalist forces often taking the initiative and Republican actions being primarily defensive.
3. The Civil War (1936-1939)
1936
The Nationalist army, led by Mola in the North and Franco in the South, aimed to unite their forces and consolidate positions. After achieving this, they advanced towards Madrid and Extremadura. Madrid resisted, stabilizing the front until early 1937. The battles of Jarama and Guadalajara thwarted Nationalist attempts to capture Madrid and end the war quickly.
The war internationalized, with the USSR and communist International Brigades supporting the Republic, while Germany and Italy provided more decisive aid to the Nationalists. England and France remained non-interventionist.
1937
After conquering Malaga and holding the front near Madrid, the Nationalist army resisted the Republican Brunete offensive. They then launched an offensive in the north, including the bombing of Guernica by the Condor Legion. Bilbao, Santander, and Asturias fell to the Nationalists.
Republican offensives in Aragon against Belchite and Teruel were halted, with Teruel briefly occupied.
1938
Following a Republican attack near Teruel, the Nationalist army launched an offensive in Aragon, retaking Teruel and advancing to the Mediterranean, reaching Castellón. This split Republican territory and isolated Catalonia. The Republicans launched an offensive across the Ebro River, resulting in a war of attrition (Battle of the Ebro) that ended in Nationalist victory.
1939
Following the Ebro front’s collapse, the Nationalist army advanced into Catalonia, capturing Barcelona. The Republican zone shrunk to central and southeastern territories. Divisions emerged among Republicans regarding surrender. A Defense Council in Madrid, led by Casado, Miaja, and Besteiro, negotiated surrender against the wishes of Negrín’s Republican government. Franco demanded immediate surrender. In late March, the Nationalists captured Madrid, securing victory. The war officially ended on April 1st, with Republicans surrendering or fleeing into exile.
4. Political Developments
Republican Spain
The working class reaction to the uprising led to a revolution that overwhelmed the Republican administration. After a failed attempt by Martínez Barrio’s government, José Giral formed a government that armed worker organizations but couldn’t control the revolutionary situation. On September 4, 1936, Largo Caballero formed a new government including left-wing politicians, trade unionists, and anarchists. This government relocated to Valencia. The social revolution spread throughout Republican territory, excluding the Basque Country. Workers occupied factories and land, leading to collectivizations. Committees and individuals carried out killings of those considered right-wing and against the Church. Gradually, Republican governments regained control from anarchists and extremists. The Communists, whose importance grew due to Soviet support, advocated for “winning the war before the revolution.”
Largo Caballero resisted communist pressure but eventually left power. Before his departure, the Basque Country was granted autonomy. On May 17, 1937, Juan Negrín formed a new government with Prieto as defense minister. With Western democracies maintaining non-intervention, Negrín relied on communist support and Soviet aid. Following Catalonia’s fall, Azaña resigned as president and fled to France. Casado’s coup against Negrín led to surrender. The war’s end resulted in the exile of thousands of Spanish leftists and democrats.
Nationalist Spain
The military insurrection initially targeted the Popular Front government but quickly rejected the democratic system. This aligned with supporting groups (Carlists and Falangists), but military leaders aimed for a military dictatorship, Mola’s position. A process of eliminating political opponents, union leaders, and leftists began in Nationalist areas, with repression occurring on both sides. Social and labor legislation of the Republic was repealed, including land reforms, parties, and unions. National Syndicalist ideas were later adopted. The “Fuero del Trabajo” (March 1938) defined the new state as National Syndicalist, rejecting liberal capitalism and Marxist materialism. More radical Falangist ideas were not implemented. Legislation against the Church was abolished, and the Church largely supported the Nationalist side, terming the war a “National Crusade.”
Franco consolidated power during the war. In September 1936, the military junta, led by Cabanellas, recognized the need for unified command. On September 28, Franco, whose reputation grew with his army’s rapid advance on Madrid, was chosen. A decree on September 29 designated Franco as Head of State and Generalissimo. Mola’s disappearance and the Republicans’ execution of Primo de Rivera, head of the Falange, strengthened Franco’s position. Franco then unified Carlism and National Syndicalism. The “Decree of Unification” (April 19, 1937) created the “Traditionalist Spanish Phalanx of the JONS,” the sole party of the “National Movement” under Franco’s command. The regime adopted fascist characteristics, with Franco taking the title of “Caudillo,” increasing his power. Nationalist ideological currents (right-wing monarchists, traditionalists, Falangists) became subordinate to Franco’s political and military authority.