Spanish Baroque Theater: A Golden Age of Drama

Posted on Sep 19, 2024 in Music

1. The National Comedy

In the 17th century, the national comedy, also known as the new comedy, was consolidated. It was created by Lope de Vega and further developed by Calderon de la Barca, among others. It was performed in corrales (courtyard theaters), which attracted a diverse audience.

1.1. Main Features of the National Comedy

Mixture of Tragedy and Comedy: Spanish playwrights did not adhere to the classical unities of time and place. However, they generally respected the unity of action (two or three actions leading to the same outcome).

Division of Drama: Plays were divided into three acts or jornadas: exposition, rising action, and resolution. Within each act, there were scenes, defined by changes in meter.

Decorum, Language, and Polymetry: Dramatic decorum refers to the appropriateness of behavior and language. It relates to credibility, which depends on the type of play. Lope de Vega demanded pure and chaste language appropriate to the situation and character. Polymetry, or the use of a variety of meters and stanzas, was also a characteristic feature.

Themes and Characters: Lope de Vega mentioned two main themes: honor and virtuous actions, but many others appeared. Characters were defined by their gender and social role, falling into six basic types:

• Dama: The female protagonist, beautiful, faithful, and of noble lineage.
• Galán: The male counterpart to the dama. Handsome, noble, generous, and loyal.
• Poderoso: Embodied by the king, a nobleman, or a prince.
• Viejo: Almost always the father of the dama.
• Gracioso: A comical figure who provides humor. Often the counterpart of the galán.
• Criada: The female counterpart to the gracioso, with similar characteristics.

2. Types of Drama

Two main types of dramas were represented in Baroque theater: serious and comic.

2.1. Long Plays

• Tragedies: Depicted catastrophic and pitiful events, involving the emotional engagement of the audience.
• Comedias serias (tragicomedies): Dealt with various topics, often related to honor.
• Autos sacramentales: Religious plays focused on the exaltation of the Eucharist.
• Comedias de capa y espada: Starring gentlemen, these plays explored love affairs and were often implausible.
• Comedias de figurón: Featured a comical character.
• Comedias palatinas: Comedies set in palaces, with noble protagonists.
• Comedias burlescas: Performed during carnival or the feast of San Juan.

2.2. Short Plays

• Entreméses: Humorous one-act plays.
• Loas: Prologues intended to win the audience’s favor.
• Bailes: Featured music, singing, and dancing.
• Jácaras: Sung ballads.
• Mojigangas: Dances with exaggerated and ridiculous movements.
• Follas: Mixtures of short comic genres.

3. The Corral Theaters

Baroque plays were performed in corrales (courtyard theaters).

3.1. Theatrical Space

Theaters were typically built alongside buildings and had a ground floor and three upper levels:

• Ground floor: Behind the gradas (benches).
• First floor: Rejas (latticed windows).
• Second floor: Aposentos (private boxes).
• Third floor: Desvanes (attics).

The building opposite the stage had four floors:

• Ground floor: Entrance, alojera (refreshment stand), and two apartments.
• First floor: Cazuela (women’s gallery).
• Second floor: Balcony for town councilors and seven aposentos.
• Third floor: Tertulia (gathering place).

Behind the stage was a wooden structure called the vestuario (dressing room). The first floor, also called vestuario, was used to represent scenes in different settings. The second floor was the first apariencia (upper stage level). The third was the second apariencia. The fourth floor was the desván de las tramoyas (attic for stage machinery). The courtyard was covered by a large awning.

3.2. Audience

The audience sat on benches, in the gradas, or on stools. There were also standing spectators. Men were placed in the courtyard and the attic. Women were in the cazuela. In the aposentos, the audience was mixed. Religious figures often attended.

5. Court Theater

Court theater developed during the reign of Philip III, parallel to the rise of the comedia in public theaters. Drama became a key element in courtly festivities. With Philip IV’s accession to the throne, court theatrical activity increased dramatically, and Italian set designers began working in Spain. In the Zarzuela Palace, a play by Calderón was staged, combining spoken dialogue with recitatives and arias, thus giving birth to the zarzuela (Spanish operetta). In the 1640s, performances declined in importance, and Lotti and the queen died.

With the arrival of the new queen, performances resumed. The Florentine designer Baccio del Bianco came to court, introducing impressive stage transformations. The heyday of court theater lasted until the death of Philip IV. After his death, the spectacular productions were suspended for nearly five years. Attempts were made to compensate for the lack of originality with luxury, but court theater gradually declined.

6. Auto Sacramental

The auto sacramental was a one-act religious play that presented the Eucharist as its central theme. It revolved around the story of salvation and the exaltation of the sacrament.

In the 17th century, the symbolic use of allegory was perfected, and there was a significant development of spectacular scenery.

6.1. Features of the Auto Sacramental

• One-act structure.
• Linked religious teaching with the feast of Corpus Christi.
• Allegorical expression of the Eucharistic theme.
• Sumptuous scenery.

6.2. Representation

Initially, autos sacramentales were performed in churches, but from the 17th century onward, they were staged on mobile platforms called carros. Music was an essential component, and the carros typically included hymns.

8. Lope de Vega

Lope de Vega created the national comedy and was known as the “Phoenix of Wits.” He was a prolific writer from humble origins with a scandalous life.

8.1. Features of Lope’s Works

His dramatic works, intended for performance in corrales, were characterized by a mixture of religious and popular elements. He sought to satisfy all audiences through various means: the common people (with action) and the cultured spectators (with verse). Major dramatic works of Lope include:

• Comedias de capa y espada: La dama boba (The Foolish Lady).
• Comedias palatinas: El perro del hortelano (The Dog in the Manger).
• Comedias bíblicas: La obra de Jacob (The Work of Jacob).
• Comedias de santos: El villano en su rincón (The Peasant in His Corner).
• Comedias mitológicas: Adonis y Venus (Adonis and Venus).
• Comedias serias: Fuenteovejuna (The Sheepfold).
• Tragedias: El caballero de Olmedo (The Knight of Olmedo).
• Teatro cortesano: Amar sin saber a quién (To Love Without Knowing Whom).

8.2. Fuenteovejuna

This play features a collective protagonist, the people of Fuenteovejuna. There is a double plot: the oppression of the town by the Commander and the rebellion of the townspeople. A woman, Laurencia, will incite the action.

8.3. The Knight of Olmedo

Based on a true story, this play draws inspiration from La Celestina. It employs the technique of premonition and is considered a tragedy due to the presence of love, death, and fate.

8.4. Peribáñez and the Commander of Ocaña

Lope de Vega presents a drama of honor, where the peasant Peribáñez confronts the Commander, Don Fadrique. The Commander falls in love with Peribáñez’s wife and sends him to war. Upon his return, Peribáñez kills the Commander. The king pardons him. The play has a single plot line.

8.5. La dama boba

This is a comedia de capa y espada characterized by its urban setting and abundance of comic devices. Two sisters, one intelligent and one foolish, are the protagonists. A poet is drawn to the foolish sister, while a lover, intended for the intelligent sister, falls in love with the fool.

9. Tirso de Molina

9.1. Features of Tirso’s Works

Following Lope de Vega’s model, Tirso de Molina defended the new comedy, incorporating elements of intellectual and psychological insight. His plays often address the status of women. He is considered a master of comedy and a creator of memorable characters. Key plays include:

• Comedias: Marta la piadosa (Martha the Pious).
• Comedias palatinas: La villana de Valle (The Peasant Girl of Valle).
• Dramas bíblicos: La mujer que manda en casa (The Woman Who Rules at Home).
• Comedias de santos: Santa Juana (Saint Joan).
• Tragicomedia: El burlador de Sevilla y convidado de piedra (The Trickster of Seville and the Stone Guest).
• Comedias mitológicas: El Aquiles (Achilles).
• Autos sacramentales: El laberinto de Creta (The Labyrinth of Crete).

9.2. The Trickster of Seville

This play marks the first appearance of the character of Don Juan. The drama is divided into two parts: Don Juan Tenorio’s seductions (four women deceived) and the episodes of the double invitation and punishment. Don Juan represents a certain type of nobleman. In his art of seduction, anything goes. The play criticizes the moral state of Spain and all social classes.

10. Calderón de la Barca

Calderón de la Barca was the last great playwright of the Spanish Baroque.

10.1. Features of Calderón’s Works

Calderón’s plays have a high intellectual tone and great complexity. His dramatic vision of human nature is pessimistic. The comical figure becomes more complex. Lyrical elements, such as music, are inseparable from the action. His language includes Petrarchan poetic, loving, and serious registers. We can distinguish two stages in his production.

Main plays:

• Tragedias: El médico de su honra (The Physician of His Honor).
• Comedias serias: La vida es sueño (Life is a Dream), El alcalde de Zalamea (The Mayor of Zalamea).
• Comedias cortesanas: Eco y Narciso (Echo and Narcissus).
• Comedias de capa y espada: La dama duende (The Phantom Lady).
• Autos sacramentales: La cena del rey Baltasar (Belshazzar’s Feast).

10.2. Life is a Dream

This play explores the story of Prince Segismundo, imprisoned in a tower since childhood. His father, King Basilio, locked him up after a horoscope predicted that his son would become a tyrant. Later, the king brings Segismundo to court, but he reacts violently and is returned to the tower. Upon waking, he doesn’t know if what he has lived was a dream or reality. Segismundo forgives his father and is willing to be a just king. The secondary plot is led by Rosaura, who arrives at the Polish court in search of Astolfo. Segismundo becomes attached to her, despite falling in love with Estrella, thus restoring honor and order. Themes: fate, free will, life as a dream, self-control, power, justice, etc.

10.3. The Mayor of Zalamea

This play deals with issues of justice and the impunity of the nobility. Don Alvaro is staying at the house of Pedro Crespo. He kidnaps Isabel (Crespo’s daughter), rapes her, and leaves. Crespo orders the captain’s arrest and demands that he remedy his offense by marrying Isabel. Given Don Alvaro’s refusal, Crespo orders his execution by garrote. Finally, Crespo is appointed permanent mayor of Zalamea, and Isabel is sent to a convent.

10.4. The Physician of His Honor

This play is a drama of honor. The Infante Don Enrique is injured when he falls from his horse and is assisted by Doña Mencía, who is now married to Don Gutierre. Gutierre, suspecting his wife’s fidelity, asks a surgeon to kill her. The king forces Gutierre to marry Leonor.

10.5. La dama duende

This play summarizes the characteristics of the comedia de capa y espada. Don Manuel receives gifts and messages from a “phantom lady.” This lady is Doña Angela, the sister of his friend Don Luis. One night, Don Manuel discovers her and follows her to her room, where Don Luis finds them and challenges his friend to a duel to save the family honor. The marriage of the young couple will resolve the situation.