Spanish-American Wars of Independence & First Carlist War
The Spanish-American Wars of Independence (1816-1824)
From 1816 onward, significant military campaigns took place in which the Spanish armies clashed with American patriots. These patriots were led by two magnificent military figures, Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín. The triumphs of the liberators in Colombia and Chile failed to make the Spanish king surrender. He prepared to send more troops based in Andalusia, but these troops never left and revolted in favor of the Constitution.
Amid the difficulties of the Spanish monarchy, the rebels continued their advance. After the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824, they liberated the lands of Peru, which were the last holdouts loyal to Spain. Spain lost forever its American territories, except for Cuba and Puerto Rico.
In Mexico, the fear of an egalitarian revolution kept indigenous landowners, the bourgeoisie, and the higher clergy loyal to the metropolis. However, attempts at reform during the Liberal Triennium pushed ecclesiastical notables and the church to support the independence movement of General Agustín de Iturbide, who in 1822 proclaimed himself emperor of Mexico.
Consequences of American Independence
American independence not only ended three centuries of union between America and Spain but also originated profound changes on both sides of the Atlantic. Spain was definitively relegated to a role of a second-rate power and lost a huge market. For America, Bolívar’s dream of creating a united Gran Colombia failed, and the new American states became easy prey for the neo-colonialism of the United States and Britain. Also, during the 19th century, the new republics would engage in wars among themselves, armed conflicts that would help build or reinforce new national identities.
The First Carlist War (1833-1839)
The death of Ferdinand VII in Spain sparked a civil war between absolutist supporters of Don Carlos and liberal advocates of Queen Elizabeth II. This war, known as the First Carlist War, would last for seven years. The war was very localized geographically, as its main stage was the Basque Country and Navarre, along with some mountain areas of Aragon and Catalonia.
The Carlist forces were commanded by General Zumalacárregui from Gipuzkoa, who skillfully directed the military and had extensive knowledge of the terrain. Maria Cristina, the Queen Regent, sought support from the Liberals.
Ideological Approaches of Both Sides
Carlist ideology advocated for the charters, religious power, and the traditional system of property. They had the support of the rural peasant population, part of the nobility, and the church, as well as external support from Russia, Austria, and Prussia. Their motto was “God, Country, and Fuero.”
The Queen was forced to compromise with liberalism, offering reform measures. She was supported by the bourgeoisie, the urban proletariat, and rural populations. In terms of external support, her allied countries were France and England.
Evolution of the War
The Carlists used guerrilla warfare, which initially allowed the Carlist uprising to strengthen in the Basque Country and Navarre. The seizure of the capital of the Basque Country was the obsession of the Carlist leaders. The Siege of Bilbao ended in failure and claimed the life of General Zumalacárregui.
In 1836, after the Battle of Luchana, General Espartero lifted the siege of Bilbao. The last period of the war, from 1837 to 1839, was marked by an ideological divide among the Carlists. Some, known as “transactionalists,” wanted to compromise with liberals, while others, known as “uncompromising” and close to Don Carlos, wanted to continue the war until the end.