Spanish-American War: Impact and Aftermath
The Settlement of Imperio: The Spanish-American War
The Cuban Insurrection
Despite Cuba’s small size, its products (sugar, coffee, tobacco) were highly valuable to Spanish trade. The colony also provided a favorable market for Spanish goods. Spain maintained a colonial monopoly, benefiting itself at the expense of the islanders. This fueled separatist sentiment among Cuban planters who saw political independence as the only path to economic freedom.
Throughout the latter half of the 19th century, the U.S. increased its interest in Cuba, being the largest recipient of its sugar exports and having invested in modernizing its sugar production. The U.S. offered support to independence movements, aiming to integrate Cuba into its economic market.
From 1868, Cuban insurrections were frequent, suppressed through military force and political agreements. The Pact of Zanjón (1878) ended a ten-year war, granting amnesty and a status similar to Puerto Rico, but ultimately failed to quell the independence movement.
In 1895, final independence revolts, led by José Martí of the Cuban Revolutionary Party, began. Guerrilla warfare and epidemics decimated the Spanish army. 1896 proved critical; not only did General Weyler’s repressive policies fail, but war also erupted in the Philippines.
The U.S. secretly attempted to purchase Cuba from Spain, reflecting its expansionist policy. Ultimately, the Americans supported the insurgents, leading to a declaration of war after the sinking of the USS Maine in Havana under suspicious circumstances.
The Spanish-American War
The Spanish government, fueled by a nationalistic press campaign, entered a war for which it was unprepared. The war had two fronts: Cuba and the Caribbean, and the Philippines in Southeast Asia.
In the Philippines, nationalist movements advocating independence had existed since 1871. The 1896 insurrection was initially suppressed, but the Spanish-American War altered the conflict’s course.
The Spanish army was no match for the U.S. military. The Battle of Manila Bay (Philippines) saw the near-total destruction of the Spanish fleet, followed by the destruction of the remaining Spanish armada at Santiago de Cuba.
Spain was forced to sign the Paris Peace Treaty, formally recognizing Cuban independence under U.S. political and economic control. Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam were annexed by the U.S. in exchange for financial compensation.
Spain’s loss of empire concluded with the 1899 sale of the remaining Marianas, Carolinas, and Palau islands to Germany. Only small African enclaves remained as Spanish colonies.
The Impact of the Conflict of 1898
A Nation in Crisis
The crisis exposed the limitations of the Restoration regime (beyond military defeat and colonial loss) in addressing Spain’s modernization challenges. The issues and social problems that emerged would define the 20th century. A profound collective impact led to widespread soul-searching within Spanish society.
While not causing an immediate political crisis, the so-called”Disaster of ‘9″ created national upheaval. This resulted in a strong revisionist movement, promoted by the same political system as Francisco Silvela and Cánovas del Castillo had led within the Conservative Party. They proposed reforming the constitutional monarchy and the Restoration from within.
Conversely, regime opponents and intellectuals, led by Joaquín Costa, advocated for regenerationism, encompassing deeper changes to overcome Spain’s economic, cultural, and social backwardness. This regeneration included financial reorganization, economic growth, and improved education. Costa summarized this with the phrase”school and breadbasket.“
Economically, the loss of colonies decreased foreign trade, exacerbating an inflationary crisis. This soon impacted society, with strikes and increased anarchist activity. Inflation and human losses (50,000 soldiers) disproportionately affected the poor, as the wealthy avoided military service through cash payments.
The loss of empire triggered a significant cultural crisis, evident in the Generation of ’98, which also emphasized the need for societal regeneration. This heterogeneous group, united by a fervent Spanish nationalism, included prominent figures like Unamuno, Ortega y Gasset, Maeztu, and Pío Baroja.
The Tragic Week of 1909
The Tragic Week, or Red Week, refers to the violent events of July 1909 in Barcelona and Catalonia, Spain’s main industrial centers.
Contributing factors included protests against the colonial war in Morocco, specifically the Catalan government’s call-up of reservists for a military expedition in Africa. Many of these reservists, married with children, had completed their military service six years prior. The working class resented a government and monarchy sending poor Spaniards to die in Morocco to defend the economic interests of industrialists and mine owners in the Rif, and military officers who saw the war as a path to quick promotion. The unfair recruitment system also fueled protests.
Further contributing factors were Barcelona’s ongoing economic hardship and deep-seated anti-clericalism, fueled by the propaganda of Alejandro Lerroux, nicknamed the”priest-hater”
Initially, demonstrations escalated into a general strike, promoted by anarchists, socialists, and Lerrouxists. This degenerated into a violent spontaneous uprising involving the entire Barcelona working class. The city was paralyzed; masses took to the streets, erecting barricades, overturning streetcars, cutting communications with the rest of Spain, and burning over 50 monasteries and churches, horrifying the middle class.
The conservative government of Antonio Maura declared martial law in Barcelona and sent the army to quell the insurrection. Street fighting resulted in the deaths of 75 rebels and 9 security forces members.
The government’s harsh crackdown on the labor movement led to over 1,000 imprisonments and five executions. The execution of Francisco Ferrer Guardia, a known Barcelona anarchist and founder of”Modern School” teaching workers anarchist ideals, had a particularly significant impact. Tried by a military court and accused without proof of organizing the rebellion, Ferrer’s execution caused international outrage, portraying him as a martyr of Spanish barbarism.
Politically, Maura’s conservative cabinet fell, replaced by another Liberal Party government. Meanwhile, Socialists and Republicans began collaborating against the monarchy, a first step towards the proclamation of the Second Republic.