Spain’s Tumultuous Early 20th Century: Alfonso XIII’s Reign (1902-1923)
Alfonso XIII’s Reign: Spain in Crisis (1902-1923)
The period from 1902 to 1923, under the reign of Alfonso XIII, was marked by profound political and social instability that challenged the very foundations of the Restoration system.
Permanent Instability: Causes and Consequences
The political crisis during Alfonso XIII’s reign stemmed from several factors:
- Alfonso XIII’s direct involvement in frequent government changes.
- Intense struggles between emerging political factions.
- Political manipulation primarily limited to agricultural areas, while the growing influence and voting weight of cities diminished traditional political power.
- Widespread political corruption, leading to weak and unstable governments where no single party could form a lasting majority.
The country also faced significant societal challenges:
- Increased social struggles and labor unrest.
- A resurgence of anticlericalism.
- The re-emergence of military movements as a political force.
- The rise of Basque and Catalan nationalisms.
- The escalating problem of the Moroccan War.
Political Regeneration Projects
Despite the instability, the early years until 1912 were characterized by attempts to implement reformist, “Regenerationist” projects. However, these efforts often failed due to internal disputes within the political parties. Contrary to some views, the Disaster of 1898 had profound political implications, directly inspiring these regenerationist movements.
During these years, Spain saw five Liberal and five Conservative governments, reflecting the intense struggle for leadership between figures like Antonio Maura and Francisco Silvela (Conservatives), and José Canalejas and Segismundo Moret (Liberals).
In 1901, the Regionalist League was founded by Enric Prat de la Riba and Francesc Cambó, which notably won the municipal elections in 1905. This year also witnessed a significant clash between Catalan nationalists and the military, sparked by the publication of an anti-militarist satirical joke in the journal ¡Cu-Cut!.
Key Regenerationist Attempts: Maura and Canalejas
The two most significant political regeneration attempts were led by Antonio Maura and José Canalejas, though both ultimately faced challenges in fully restoring stability.
Conservative Regenerationism (Antonio Maura)
In 1907, King Alfonso XIII appointed Antonio Maura as head of government. Maura’s regenerationist vision was encapsulated in his famous phrase: “We will make the revolution from above to prevent it from being made from below.” His key initiatives included:
- Enacting the Law of Protection of National Industry.
- Establishing the National Insurance Institute in 1908.
- Regulating working hours and conditions (e.g., the Strikes Law).
- Passing the Electoral Act of 1907 and the Local Government Act, with support from the Regionalist League.
Liberal Regenerationism (José Canalejas)
José Canalejas’s government also pursued an ambitious reform program. His key reforms included:
- Establishing compulsory military service.
- Founding the Mancomunidades (Commonwealths) Law, which allowed provinces to associate for administrative purposes.
- Achieving his most significant success in 1912 when Congress passed the Law on Associations, aimed at regulating religious orders.
The Moroccan War and the Tragic Week (1909)
Following the Disaster of 1898, Spain’s foreign policy increasingly focused on North Africa. Treaties in 1902-1904 assigned Spain a sphere of influence alongside France. The Algeciras Conference (1906) further defined Spain’s zone, and the Hispano-French Treaty (1912) formalized Spain’s entry into the colonial partition. This established a Franco-Spanish protectorate in Morocco, with the Rif region assigned to Spain.
This period saw the devastating defeat at Barranco del Lobo in 1909. The government’s call for reservists to fight in Morocco triggered widespread protests, culminating in the “Tragic Week” in Barcelona. A general strike committee was formed, and the government declared a state of war. The Ferrer Affair (the execution of anarchist educator Francisco Ferrer i Guàrdia) and widespread protests against Maura ensued, leading to a change of government to the Liberals.
Nationally, a Republican-Socialist coalition began to emerge, including the Reformist Party of Melquíades Álvarez and elements of anarcho-syndicalism.
Emerging Political and Social Movements
Republicanism
Attempts to unify the republican movement around Nicolás Salmerón failed due to internal dissent, particularly from Alejandro Lerroux’s Radical Party. Vicente Blasco Ibáñez also led his own republican faction, known as “Blasquismo.” Significantly, in the aftermath of the Tragic Week, the Republican-Socialist coalition gained momentum, leading to the election of the PSOE’s first deputy, Pablo Iglesias.
Nationalist Movements
Catalan nationalism was primarily dominated by the Regionalist League, led by Prat de la Riba and Cambó. Their political agenda focused on defending bourgeois class interests and promoting economic modernization through greater autonomy for Catalonia.
Trade Unionism and Labor Unrest: UGT and CNT
Despite economic growth, the unequal distribution of wealth fueled significant social tensions and a period of intense labor unrest at the turn of the century. Spanish trade unionism developed along two main currents:
- Socialist Trade Unionism (UGT): The Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT) saw increased growth in Madrid and northern Spain. It adopted a reformist path, working for social reforms and actively supporting the Republican-Socialist coalition.
- Anarcho-Syndicalism: In 1907, Solidaridad Obrera (Workers’ Solidarity) was founded as a federation promoting non-political, pro-revolutionary struggle. The Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT), established in 1910, was a revolutionary organization with an ideology based on direct action and the abolition of the state. Key figures in anarcho-syndicalism included Salvador Seguí and Ángel Pestaña.