Spain’s Tumultuous 20th Century: From Dictatorship to Civil War

Posted on Dec 2, 2024 in History

Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship

Among the key events of this period are:

  1. General Primo de Rivera rose to power, ostensibly to save the country, but in reality to preserve the ailing monarchy of Alfonso XIII.
  2. The dictatorship aimed to stabilize the ruling class by resolving issues from previous governments and improving the nation’s image.
  3. The dictatorship achieved significant economic progress, including merging public and private capital, and undertaking ambitious infrastructure projects (roads, bridges, ports, waterworks, railways). This boosted the construction industry, reduced unemployment, and expanded industrial and mining production. However, public works, railway subsidies, and oil nationalization (Campsa) led to financial disaster and the peseta’s devaluation, culminating in the dictator’s resignation.
  4. In 1930, anti-monarchist parties signed the Pact of San Sebastian to overthrow the monarchy and establish a republic.
  5. Weakened, the monarchy called for elections, viewed as a referendum on its future. Republican forces triumphed in provincial capitals and major cities on April 14, 1931, despite stronger monarchist support in rural areas. With dwindling support, the King abdicated, leading to the proclamation of the Second Republic, with Alcalá Zamora heading a provisional government.

Second Republic

The Second Republic marked the end of the bourgeois liberal revolution and the beginning of profound political and social reforms, characterized by:

  1. The promulgation of the Constitution of 1931. Spain was defined as a democratic republic of workers, organized under freedom and justice. The president, elected for six years, was accountable to the courts. Legislative power resided in a unicameral Congress of Deputies, elected by universal suffrage. The Constitution guaranteed the separation of powers, established a constitutional court, and proclaimed equality before the law, including broad individual rights. While recognizing private property, it allowed for expropriation with compensation in the national interest. It also mandated the separation of church and state, ending religious teaching and clergy remuneration.
  2. The Left Republic (1931-1933). This period saw significant agrarian reform to create small landholders and end landlordism. Catalonia gained autonomy. However, discontent among Catholics and the military led to uprisings, such as those of Casas Viejas and Sanjurjo, forcing the government’s resignation.
  3. The Right Republic (1933-1936). Subsequent governments slowed the reforms, but in October 1934, left-wing forces launched a revolutionary movement in Asturias and Catalonia, which was suppressed.
  4. The Popular Front Government. Left-wing parties, united in the Popular Front, won the 1936 elections. However, ongoing conflicts between the right (CEDA, Gil Robles, Spanish Falange) and the left (Socialists, UGT, CNT-FAI, Communists) culminated in Franco’s military uprising in July 1936.

Spanish Civil War

Between July 1936 and April 1939, Spain endured one of its most tragic periods. A military uprising escalated into a bloody civil war with devastating demographic, economic, and cultural consequences, including the loss of many intellectuals and leaders.

Key characteristics of the war:

  1. The war’s beginning: On July 7, 1936, the garrison in Africa revolted, spreading across Spain within days. The Republic maintained control in northern industrial centers, Madrid, and Catalonia, supported by the Soviet Union and International Brigades. Franco’s rebels received crucial aid from Germany and Italy.
  2. Evolution of Fronts:
    1. During the initial months, Franco aimed to capture Madrid, but the capital resisted fiercely.
    2. On the northern front, fighting was intense, but by 1937, Franco’s forces controlled the entire peninsula.
    3. Franco’s Mediterranean offensive in 1938 divided Republican territory. The Battle of the Ebro saw heavy losses on both sides.
    4. In January 1939, Republican resistance collapsed in Catalonia, and Madrid surrendered in March, ending the war on April 1.
  3. Domestic Politics: The Republican side suffered from organizational issues and received less foreign support than Franco. Franco’s side maintained order and control, benefiting from substantial Italian and German assistance.
  4. Consequences of the Civil War:
    1. One million dead and missing, excluding prisoners of war and emigrants, negatively impacting birth rates.
    2. Decrease in the workforce.
    3. Loss of over 500 metric tons of gold.
    4. War expenses totaling 500 billion pesetas.
    5. Destruction of over 10% of the country’s habitable assets.
    6. Severe damage to transport systems, reduction of livestock, and arable land.
    7. A drop of over 30% in Spain’s income level, exacerbating income inequality.