Spain’s Tumultuous 19th Century: From Bourbons to Republic
Charles IV and the Napoleonic Era
Charles IV, a Bourbon monarch, ruled Spain during a period of upheaval. Fearful of the French Revolution’s impact, he allied with European powers against France, leading to the disastrous Peace of Basel treaty. The subsequent Battle of Trafalgar further weakened Spain. Napoleon’s manipulative Treaty of Fontainebleau resulted in the occupation of Portugal and Spain, triggering the Mutiny of Aranjuez and the forced abdications at Bayonne. Napoleon installed his brother, Joseph I, as king, sparking the French War (Peninsular War).
The Rise of Liberalism and the Constitution of 1812
Amidst the war, the Courts of Cadiz convened, drafting the liberal Constitution of 1812 (“La Pepa”). This document championed national sovereignty, separation of powers, and citizens’ rights.
Ferdinand VII’s Reign: Absolutism vs. Liberalism
Ferdinand VII, restored to the throne, initially abolished the constitution, ushering in an absolutist era. However, Rafael del Riego’s successful coup in 1820 led to the Liberal Triennium, a brief period of constitutional rule. French intervention in 1823 restored absolutism, marking the Ominous Decade.
Dynastic Conflict and the Carlist Wars
Ferdinand VII’s death in 1833 ignited a dynastic conflict. The Pragmatic Sanction, allowing his daughter Isabella II to inherit the throne, was contested by his brother, Infante Carlos, leading to the first of three Carlist Wars.
Regencies and Isabella II’s Reign
Maria Cristina’s regency saw the implementation of the Royal Statute and a shift towards moderate liberalism. Espartero’s regency was marked by authoritarianism and social unrest. Isabella II’s reign was characterized by political instability, with alternating moderate and progressive governments. Key events include:
- Constitution of 1845: Established a more conservative regime.
- Biennium Progressivo: A period of economic modernization and reforms.
- Moderate Liberal Period: Alternating rule of O’Donnell and Narvaez.
The Revolution of 1868 and the Search for a New Monarchy
Economic crisis and political discontent culminated in the Revolution of 1868 (La Gloriosa), forcing Isabella II into exile. The Pact of Ostend paved the way for a provisional government and the search for a new monarch. Amadeo I of Savoy’s reign was short-lived, plagued by political instability and social unrest.
The First Spanish Republic
Amadeo’s abdication led to the proclamation of the First Republic. Internal divisions between unified and federal republicans, coupled with cantonalist uprisings, weakened the republic. Successive presidents, including Pi i Margall, Salmeron, and Castelar, struggled to maintain order. A coup led by General Pavia paved the way for the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy.