Spain’s Transformation: Restoration to Dictatorship (1874-1923)
The Restoration Era (1874-1902)
The Restoration period began with favorable political developments and stability. However, the agricultural sector, employing two-thirds of the population and dominating the Spanish economy, suffered from low yields and archaic techniques. Viticulture thrived due to the phylloxera plague in France, leading to massive wine exports to Europe. Meanwhile, the industrial sector experienced dynamic growth, setting Spain on a path towards industrialization in the early 20th century. The textile industry, primarily in Catalonia, initially declined due to the loss of colonies but recovered during World War I. Mining activity also increased significantly, though largely controlled by foreign companies. The Spanish steel industry centered around Bilbao, with the founding of Altos Hornos de Vizcaya S.A. in 1902. Transportation saw major advancements with railway expansion and the growth of the merchant navy.
Social Stratification
Spanish society at the start of the 20th century mirrored that of the early Restoration years. The urban bourgeoisie, strengthened by the industrial boom, and the agrarian oligarchy formed the dominant minority. The industrial proletariat expanded rapidly due to factory staffing demands, fueled by rural exodus and internal migration. Reformers and labor groups pushed for social legislation, including regulations on child labor, the eight-hour workday, and the right to strike. Institutions like the Institute of Social Reforms and the National Institute of Precision were established. However, these measures failed to satisfy the working masses, who increasingly joined opposition parties and unions.
The Regenerationism Movement
Following Spain’s defeat in 1898, the Regenerationism movement emerged, led by intellectuals and politicians who sought to address societal issues. While influential, the movement failed to achieve substantial change, and the Restoration regime entered a deep crisis. The bipartite system persisted until 1917.
The Reign of Alfonso XIII (1902-1923)
The early years of Alfonso XIII’s reign were marked by attempts at regeneration and state-promoted social reform. A new generation of politicians emerged, including Antonio Maura, who led the Conservative Party and aimed to eradicate electoral fraud and despotism. However, his efforts were thwarted by the Tragic Week of Barcelona in 1909, a violent protest sparked by the call for reservists to fight in Morocco. The repression and execution of anarchist Francisco Ferrer Guardia led to widespread protests and Maura’s resignation.
Within the Liberal Party, José Canaleja became Prime Minister in 1910. His agenda included greater social commitment, reduced clerical influence, decentralization, and military strengthening to assert Spanish interests in Morocco. Key initiatives included the”Padlock La” restricting religious orders, the Conscription Act, the abolition of consumer taxes, and the Associations Bill promoting administrative decentralization.
World War I and its Aftermath
Spain remained neutral during World War I, which had significant economic repercussions. Mining and industry benefited from increased demand from belligerent nations, agricultural prices rose due to reduced imports, and the trade balance improved. However, these benefits primarily enriched industrialists and traders, exacerbating social inequalities.
The Crisis of 1917
Three key factors contributed to the 1917 crisis: military discontent, parliamentary dissent, and a general strike. Military officers, frustrated by government neglect and disparities between Africanist and peninsular officers, formed defense juntas demanding reforms. Parliamentarians, protesting the continued closure of the Cortes, convened an assembly in Barcelona, which the government viewed as separatist. Finally, a general strike organized by the UGT and CNT aimed to overthrow the regime but was ultimately suppressed by the army.
The End of Bipartisanship and the Rise of Dictatorship
Following the 1917 crisis, the bipartite system collapsed. A series of short-lived governments failed to address pressing issues such as Catalan regionalism, the Moroccan question, and labor unrest. Alfonso XIII’s final attempt to stabilize the situation was the military dictatorship of General Primo de Rivera, which began with a coup on September 13, 1923.