Spain’s Transformation: From Old Regime to Industrialization

Posted on Dec 18, 2024 in History

The Crisis of the Old Regime

The Reign of Charles IV (1788-1808)

The reign of Charles IV marked the beginning of the crisis of the Old Regime in Spain. Initially, attempts were made to suppress the spread of Enlightenment ideas, which had fueled the French Revolution. In 1793, after the execution of Louis XVI, Spain declared war on revolutionary France. However, French forces invaded the Basque Country and Navarre, forcing Spain to sue for peace (Peace of Basel, 1795).

Later, Manuel Godoy aligned Spain with France, leading to the signing of the Treaty of Fontainebleau with Napoleon in 1807. This treaty allowed for the partition of Portugal, which had refused to join Napoleon’s economic blockade against the United Kingdom. Under the pretext of invading Portugal, French troops entered Spain and occupied strategic points across the Iberian Peninsula. This sparked public outrage against Godoy’s policies, culminating in the Mutiny of Aranjuez in 1808. The mutiny forced Charles IV to abdicate in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII. However, Napoleon refused to recognize either of them and placed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the Spanish throne.

Joseph Bonaparte implemented some liberal reforms in Spain. However, the populace rose up against the French occupation, with the uprising in Madrid on May 2, 1808, marking the beginning of the War of Independence.

The War of Independence (1808-1814)

The war was characterized by guerrilla warfare and urban resistance against the French invaders. Initially, Spanish forces achieved some successes, such as the defense of Girona, Zaragoza, and Valencia, and the victory at the Battle of Bailén in 1808. In response, Napoleon personally led 250,000 troops into Spain, reoccupying most of the country. However, in 1812, taking advantage of Napoleon’s difficulties in Russia, Spanish forces, aided by British and Portuguese troops, defeated the French at the Battle of Arapiles. In 1813, Napoleon recognized Ferdinand VII as king of Spain.

The Cortes of Cadiz and the Liberal Revolution

The war against the French coincided with a struggle between absolutism and liberalism. Provincial defense committees were formed to direct the war effort, culminating in the creation of the Supreme Central Junta. In 1810, the Junta convened the Cortes in Cadiz, with the aim of reforming the Old Regime.

The Cortes was dominated by liberals and reformers. In 1812, they promulgated a constitution that effectively dismantled the Old Regime.

  • The Constitution of 1812 recognized individual rights, such as equality before the law, and established national sovereignty and the separation of powers. It established a liberal political system.
  • The Cortes also passed laws abolishing the seigneurial system (1811), the guilds (1813), and the Inquisition (1813), and guaranteeing freedom of the press (1810).

The Restoration of Absolutism: Ferdinand VII

  • Upon his return in 1814, Ferdinand VII (1814-1820) reestablished absolutism, persecuted liberals, and annulled the work of the Cortes of Cadiz. Some liberals went into exile, while others attempted to regain power through uprisings.
  • Between 1820 and 1823, a successful uprising ushered in the Trienio Liberal (Liberal Triennium). The liberal government restored the Constitution of 1812 and the reforms of the Cortes of Cadiz. Ferdinand VII sought support from the Holy Alliance, a coalition of European absolutist powers. The Alliance sent an army to Spain, which restored Ferdinand VII to absolute power.
  • The last ten years of Ferdinand VII’s reign, known as the Década Ominosa (Ominous Decade) (1823-1833), were marked by absolutist rule, the independence of Spanish America, and the succession crisis. This crisis arose when Ferdinand VII, upon the birth of his daughter Isabella in 1830, repealed the Salic Law, which prohibited women from inheriting the throne. His brother, Charles, and many absolutists refused to accept this decision. In his final years, Ferdinand VII relied on the support of moderate liberals, alienating the more conservative elements of his court.

The Reign of Queen Isabella II

Population

  • During the 19th century, the Spanish population experienced moderate growth, slower than that of other European countries. The population increased from 10.5 million to 16.6 million.
  • Population distribution was characterized by a contrast between the densely populated coastal periphery and the sparsely populated center. There were also significant differences between urban and rural areas. While the majority of the population continued to live in the countryside, rural exodus led to increased urbanization.

Changes in Agriculture

  • The seigneurial system was abolished in 1811 by the Cortes of Cadiz. This measure transferred jurisdictional powers from the lords to the state and allowed for the sale of formerly entailed lands.
  • The state implemented a policy of desamortización, or the sale of entailed properties. This included the sale of Church lands (Mendizábal, 1835), the abolition of noble entailments (1837), and the forced sale of communal lands (Madoz, 1855).
  • The objectives of these measures were to generate revenue for the state and to facilitate access to land ownership for farmers. However, the auction system favored wealthy buyers and often harmed smallholders. It also negatively impacted agricultural laborers (jornaleros), as the new landowners often imposed harsher working conditions.
  • Agricultural improvements were limited. The cultivated area increased, but technological advances were introduced slowly.

The First Industrial Revolution in Spain

The first Industrial Revolution began in Spain around 1830. It was a delayed and incomplete process compared to that of other European countries.

Reasons for the Delay in Industrialization

  • The unstable political situation and slow demographic growth limited the demand for industrial goods.
  • Agrarian reforms did not generate significant capital for industrial investment. Many nobles and bourgeois used their wealth to purchase desamortized lands, while many farmers were impoverished. Deficiencies in the transportation network hindered internal trade, and the loss of colonial markets reduced foreign trade and capital inflows. Technological backwardness necessitated the importation of machinery.
  • Socially, there was a lack of an entrepreneurial bourgeoisie willing to invest in industry. The nobility and bourgeoisie preferred to invest in land acquired through desamortización.

Main Industrial Sectors

  • The cotton textile industry developed in Catalonia. Initially, it relied on water power, later transitioning to steam power. Consequently, factories were located near rivers or ports.
  • The iron and steel industry initially emerged in Andalusia. However, due to the lack of coal, it later shifted to Asturias, and eventually to the Basque Country, where iron ore was abundant.

Tertiary Sector Activities

  • Transportation infrastructure improved during the 19th century. 40,000 km of roads were built, and a railway network was established. The first railway line in the Iberian Peninsula was inaugurated in 1848 between Barcelona and Mataró, followed by a line between Madrid and Aranjuez in 1851. A radial network was constructed, connecting the main ports to the capital.
  • Internal trade was limited by the low purchasing power of Spanish citizens. The loss of colonial markets further reduced external trade, which had previously compensated for weak internal demand.
  • Financial institutions developed to support economic growth. Several companies and banks were created, and stock exchanges were established in Madrid and Barcelona.

The New Social Classes

The 19th century saw the replacement of the estate-based society of the Old Regime with a new class-based society. However, the nobility retained significant power, while the bourgeoisie and the proletariat remained relatively small.

  • The upper class consisted of the old nobility and the high bourgeoisie. While the nobility lost its privileges, it maintained its economic power and political and social influence. The upper-middle class and the nobility often merged through the acquisition of desamortized lands. The industrial bourgeoisie was less significant due to the limited industrial development.
  • The middle class included medium-sized landowners and urban professionals.
  • The lower class comprised small landowners, agricultural laborers (jornaleros), and the growing urban proletariat, which included factory workers and service employees.

Social Conflict

  • Agricultural laborers (jornaleros) suffered from low wages, seasonal unemployment, and precarious living conditions. This led to numerous uprisings.
  • Industrial workers faced long working hours, low wages, lack of social security, and the exploitation of women and children.
  • The labor movement emerged to address these problems. Early forms of protest included machine-breaking (Luddism). Later, workers formed organizations to demand higher wages and better working conditions. However, it was not until the Sexenio Revolucionario (Revolutionary Six Years) that freedom of association and assembly was recognized, allowing for the growth of the labor movement.