Spain’s Transformation: From Absolutism to Liberalism (19th Century)

Posted on Dec 9, 2024 in History

19th-Century Spain: The Construction of a Liberal Regime

During the 19th century, Spain experienced a process of building a liberal political regime. The first attempts took place in reaction to the Napoleonic invasion (1808-1814), but it was the death of Fernando VII (1833) that led to the introduction of liberalism in Spain. Since then, the monarchs’ powers were constrained under the Constitution and Parliament. However, the liberal Spanish regime was characterized by the constant intervention of the army in political life, very limited participation, and the limitation of freedoms. The attempts at democratization during the Progressive Biennium (1854-1856) and, above all, the Democratic Sexenio (1868-1874) both failed because of the inability of progressives, Democrats, and Republicans, and the strong opposition of the moderates.

The Crisis of the Ancien Régime (1808-1814)

At the beginning of the 19th century, the war against the French invasion of Spain originated in a deep crisis of the Ancien Régime. The war process collapsed all the institutions of the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons and ushered in the new liberal ideas:

The Crisis of the Bourbon Monarchy: The reaction of Charles IV against the French Revolution was to declare war on France. The war was a failure, and since 1799, Manuel Godoy, the most influential minister, made a radical foreign policy change. He allied with Napoleon to deal with Great Britain and authorized the French army to pass through Spain to attack Portugal. The discontent of the population with Godoy led to the outbreak of the Mutiny of Aranjuez (1808), forcing the resignation of the minister and the abdication of the king in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII. Napoleon decided to summon Charles IV and Ferdinand VII to Bayonne (France), where they accepted the appointment of his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as the new king of Spain.
The War of Independence: These events led to a popular revolt on May 2, 1808. Boards were created to lead the resistance, coordinated by a Central Junta, while groups of patriots organized guerrillas. The course of the war changed in 1812 when Napoleon’s Russian campaign forced him to move part of his army into the country. The assistance provided by the British troops under the command of Wellington was decisive, and by the end of 1813, the French began to leave Spanish territory. That same year, the Treaty of Valençay was signed, in which Ferdinand VII regained the crown, and Napoleon withdrew his troops from Spain.
Las Cortes de Cádiz: The abdication of Bayonne left a power vacuum, and King Joseph I never enjoyed the acceptance of the Spanish. So in 1810, the Central Board convened a meeting of Cortes in the city of Cádiz, the only territory not occupied by the French. The first decision taken by the courts was that all those present gathered in a single Assembly and their votes had the same weight. That drew a new camera. The Constitution, adopted in 1812, reflected the basic principles of political liberalism: national sovereignty, separation of powers, universal male suffrage, and a comprehensive bill of rights. Las Cortes de Cádiz also approved legislation to abolish the Old Regime: abolition of the feudal system, abolition of the guilds, suppression of the Inquisition, and the equality of all before the law and taxes. But the war situation precluded applying everything legislated in Cádiz. Faced with the Liberals, who led the Courts and the Constitution, the old privileged only wanted to return to the situation before 1808.

The Confrontation Between Absolutism and Liberalism

The Restoration of Absolutism: Fernando VII, called “the Desired,” returned to Spain in 1814. The Liberals claimed that the monarch immediately swore to uphold the Constitution of 1812, but the absolutists pressured to restore absolutism and repeal all liberal legislation of the Cortes of Cádiz. The king, convinced of the weakness of the liberals, prompted a coup in which the courts were closed, and the Constitution was set aside. In the following months, all ancient institutions were restored, as was the feudal system. It was a return to the Old Regime. Many liberals were arrested, and others were forced into exile or hiding. With the support of more liberal sectors of the army, opponents of absolutism organized multiple statements, most of which were suppressed, and their leaders executed.
The Three-Year Liberal: In 1820, a finding starring Colonel Rafael del Riego in Las Cabezas de San Juan (Seville) achieved success, opening the Liberal Triennium (1820-1823). The king was forced to abide by the Constitution of 1812, decreed an amnesty, and called elections. New Courts, composed of a majority of Liberal MPs, restored much of the reforms of Cádiz (abolishing the feudal regime, liberalization of trade and industry). The National Militia was created, an armed volunteer corps defending the liberal order. But this reform process did not have the approval of Ferdinand VII, who sought help from the European powers to restore absolutism. The Holy Alliance commissioned France’s military intervention in Spain, and in 1823, the so-called One Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis, under the command of Angoulême, entered Spain, defeated the liberals, and restored Fernando VII as absolute monarch.
The Bankruptcy of Absolutism: The return of absolutism (1823-1833, the Ominous Decade) was followed by a crackdown on liberals and the destruction of all legislative work of the Triennium. But the governments of Fernando VII were incapable of resolving the serious problems the country had to face. First, there was a difficult economic situation. The war against the French had greatly weakened the economy and left the Treasury in bankruptcy. Furthermore, the independence of the American colonies deprived state coffers of an important source of income. Tax reform was imperative, obliging the privileged to contribute with their taxes. But these were the main defenders of absolutism, and the king could not oppose their interests without harming his own. Second came the dynastic conflict. Fernando VII had only daughters, and the Salic law prevented women from reigning in Spain. To ensure the throne for his eldest daughter, Elizabeth, the king issued the Pragmatic Sanction, which repealed the old law. Many absolutists did not accept the change and argued that the throne corresponded to Prince Charles, the king’s brother. At the end of the reign of Fernando VII, the crisis of the absolutist regime and the need for deep reforms became apparent.

The Liberal Revolution (1833-1843)

Carlist War: After the death of Fernando VII, his daughter and heiress, Elizabeth, was only three years old. Absolutist sectors supported the rights to the throne of Ferdinand VII’s brother, Don Carlos. To defend the rights of her daughter, her mother, Maria Cristina, who was the ruler, sought the support of the Liberals. Thus began a civil war that, in the form of a dynastic conflict, meant the confrontation between absolutists (Carlists) and liberals (Elizabethans). Supporters of Carlism (agrarian nobility, clergy, and peasantry of the Northeast of Spain) were the defenders of the Ancien Régime: absolute monarchy, social prominence of the Catholic Church, the preservation of a particular legal system, and forms of traditional land ownership. Opposite them, the Elizabethans had a conglomerate of interests. The monarchy itself and the court nobility were as forward defense of the crown and its privileges but were in union with the liberals as the only way to deal with Carlism. Ahead of the Elizabethans also joined the bourgeoisie, the urban working classes, and the peasantry of the central and southern peninsula, supporters of regime change based on the ideas of liberalism: constitutional monarchy, freedom of property, and social mobility. The war lasted seven years (1833-1840). The major foci of the Carlist insurrection arose in the Basque Country, Navarra, Catalonia, Aragon, and Valencia. But no Carlist city failed to take significant and clearly the Liberal army imposed its rule. The Convention of Vergara ended the war, but Carlism was maintained throughout most of the 19th century.
The Progressive Reforms: The Liberals were divided into two factions: the moderates, supporters of limited reforms, and progressives who wanted to dismantle the entire structure of the Ancien Régime. In the midst of the Carlist war, to have the support of the Liberals, Maria Cristina prompted the creation of a liberal government. She first tried it with the moderates, but a series of military and popular uprisings forced her to call the progressives to the government. Between 1835 and 1837, the Progressives, led by Mendizábal, introduced a liberal regime. A set of laws allowed the dissolution of the feudal system, the decoupling of the property, and the confiscation of property of the clergy and the municipalities, which were liberalized land ownership. Other laws decreed the abolition of internal customs and the extinction of the unions, which opposed the free exercise of industry and trade. This process culminated in the 1837 Constitution, which inaugurated a long period of constitutional monarchy in Spain. The new Act recognized national sovereignty and individual rights but accepted the moderating role of the Crown, which granted some powers (the right to veto legislation, dissolve parliament), and the electoral system was based on census.
Regency of Espartero: In 1837, moderates, with the support of Maria Christina, came to power and tried to turn the process of revolution into conservative liberalism. An opposition movement rose up against the Regent, who was forced to resign in 1840. The general progressive Espartero was appointed regent, but the free-trade measures, which hurt the emerging Spanish industry, and authoritarianism with which he ruled earned him the opposition of much of the country. In 1843, Espartero resigned, and the Courts brought forward the age of majority of Elizabeth II and proclaimed her queen.

The Elizabethan Stage: Moderate Liberalism (1843-1868)

The Moderate Decade

The Moderate Liberalism: During the reign of Elizabeth II, the Moderate Liberal Party was, with brief exceptions, the head of government with the support of the monarchy. At that stage, liberalism consolidated but with a conservative and centralist character. Thus, based on census suffrage imposed, a statement by the Crown in politics and the limitation of freedoms. In addition, the army continued to have a great influence, for all groups resorted to it to try to seize power (statements), and the state administration was set up in a centralized, authoritarian way. The new regime was supported by powerful groups: aristocracy, Church, and conservative middle class. All of them accepted the new liberal order to stop Carlism but wanted to keep intact their social dominance and keep the progressive and popular sectors out of power.
Government Action: In the first ten years of the majority of Isabel II, under the impulses of General Narváez, the Constitution of 1845 was enacted, which established a very limited suffrage and shared sovereignty between the courts and the king. Also signed a concordat with the Vatican (1851), which shaped a confessional state. The state and municipal administration was organized from a uniform and centralized optimal so strengthened civilian and military governments in each province. Only the Basque Country and Navarra retained their ancient provincial rights, fearing Carlism. Other moderate reforms were the Treasury, which centralized the tax in the hands of the state, and the development of a Penal Code (1851), which unified the previous laws. Also dissolved the National Militia, and the Civil Guard was established (1844) to keep the law in rural areas.

The Progressive Biennium to the Elizabethan System Crisis

In 1854, a military coup (Vicálvaro) won, supported by progressives and unhappy moderates who had founded the Liberal Union, led by General O’Donnell. Between 1854 and 1856, Espartero progressives tried to restore the principles of constitutional rule in 1837 and economic reforms. Thus, Madoz conducted a new confiscation (civilian or living hands), which affected the property of local councils, and also promoted the construction of the railway.

The last stage of the reign of Isabel II (1859-1860) was an alternation of power between the moderates and the Liberal Union. It prompted a colonialist policy, which took the War of Africa (Morocco, 1859-1860) to its peak. Inside, the government’s action was very authoritarian and exerted strong repression. Opposition to the regime grew, and new political groups emerged, such as the Democrats (who advocated universal male suffrage) and Republicans (who advocated the abolition of the monarchy).

The Democratic Sexenio

Over six years, Spain tried to build a democratic regime. This meant overcoming the conservative liberalism of the previous stage and introducing democratic principles: universal male suffrage, broad political rights, and social reforms to advance equality (tax reform, public education, etc.).

The Revolution of 1868

From 1866, a severe economic crisis (agricultural, industrial, and financial) that, together with the Elizabethan regime’s political wear, set off a revolution against the monarchy. The rebels were those marginalized from power: unionists, progressives, and Democrats who came together to present an alternative method based on the democratization of political life (Covenant of Ostend). The movement, headed by General Prim (progressive) and Serrano (Unionist), erupted in September 1868 with the revolt of the squadron of Brigadier Topete in the Bay of Cádiz. The statement was followed by riots in major cities, where revolutionary committees were formed. Troops loyal to the government were defeated in Alcolea, and Queen Elizabeth II went into exile. A provisional government was formed, headed by Prim and Serrano, which prompted a reform program. Fundamental rights were recognized (printing, assembly, association, freedom of religion, etc.), and universal male suffrage, education was reformed, and the municipalities were democratized. Finally, new Cortes were chosen, which approved the Constitution of 1869, democratic in nature.

The Democratic Monarchy (1870-1873)

The Constitution of 1869 established the monarchy as a form of government, and a king had to be found among European dynasties. The choice was Amedeo of Savoy, from the Italian royal house, with a democratic conception of the role of the monarchy, who came to Spain in late 1870. But Amadeo was always opposed by the moderates, the Chartists, and the Church, which remained faithful to the Bourbons. For their part, many Democrats and some Republicans promoted insurrection in favor of the Republic. Moreover, the new king had to deal with the outbreak of two conflicts: an insurrection on the island of Cuba (1868) and a new Carlist War, which began in 1872. Lack of support and too many problems to solve, Amadeo abdicated the throne in February 1873.

The First Republic

With the abdication of the king, the Spanish parliament voted by a large majority for the proclamation of the Republic (February 1873). But this result did not reflect real support for the new form of government since most members of the chamber were monarchists. The Republic was born, then, with little chance of success but was greeted with enthusiasm by the popular sectors of cities. The Republicans had an extensive program of social reforms and, for the first time, tried to organize a federal state, dividing legislative powers between the federal government, federal republics (15 were established), and municipalities. But the republic was faced with a number of problems: Cuban and Carlist wars grew in importance, the divisions among Republicans themselves hampered government action, and, finally, the most radical Republicans precipitated social unrest and uprisings like Cartagena, which was proclaimed an independent canton. In addition, the monarchists did not accept the republican regime and began to organize to restore the monarchy in Alfonso, the son of Isabel II. In January 1874, a coup led by General Pavía dissolved the Parliament and gave the executive chairmanship to General Serrano. He tried to stabilize a conservative and presidential republic, but the social base that could support it had already opted for the return of the monarchy.

The Restoration of the Monarchy (1874-1898)

In December 1874, General Martínez Campos proclaimed, in Sagunto, Alfonso de Borbón, son of Elizabeth II, as king of Spain. The restoration of the monarchy was welcomed by conservative groups, who hoped that the monarchy would return the political and economic control of the state and ensure social order.

The Canovist System

The new political system, configured by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, had a clearly conservative character and was based on a liberal parliamentary system but hardly democratic. There were two major parties:

The Conservative Party, led by Cánovas, was a supporter of political stagnation, the defense of the Church, and the social order.
The Liberal Party, led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, appeared inclined to more democratic reformism (universal suffrage in 1890), secular and social.

However, both parties were notable (donee), which coincided essentially ideologically (defense of the monarchy, the Constitution, private property of a State centralist and uniform) and consensually assumed two complementary roles. The stability of the wine favored by drafting a new Constitution (1876) which presented a distinctly moderate. It also helped the peace which was achieved after the end of the Carlist War (1876) and the Cuban insurrection (Zanjón Peace, 1878).

The Alternation in Power

Conservatives and Liberals agreed to alternate in the exercise of power (Pacific Time), controlling Spanish political life. This was possible because they come to power had nothing to do with winning elections but to be the party chosen by the king to form a government. This was possible thanks to a corrupt electoral system that manipulated the elections and did not hesitate to falsify records or to buy votes. In addition, using all kinds of coercive practices of the electorate, using political influence and economic power that certain individuals had over the whole of society, especially in rural areas (cacique).

Nationalisms

The consolidation of a centralized and uniform state led to the emergence of nationalist movements:

In Catalonia, the strong momentum of the Renaixença (a movement that claimed the Catalan language and culture) gave way to the emergence of political organizations that demanded autonomy (Unió Catalanista, Regionalist League).
In the Basque Country, the abolition of privileges after the Carlist defeat led to a protest movement that culminated in the creation of the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV, 1894).
In Galicia, however, the Galician remained for many years as a cultural movement (Rexurdimento), with few political repercussions.

The Crisis of 98

In 1895, a new insurrection broke out in Cuba due to the Spanish government’s inability to make political reforms on the island, give it autonomy, and reduce the economic control exercised from Spain. The U.S. also supported the insurgents because of the tariffs that impeded trade, especially sugar. The end of the conflict came in 1898 when the U.S. declared war on Spain following the sinking of the American battleship Maine in Havana harbor. After a short war, Spain was defeated and lost its last colonies: Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. The defeat of 1898 resulted in society and the Spanish political class in a state of frustration and rooted in her a strong sense of pessimism. Regenerationist movements emerged in response to asking for a genuine democratization of the state and the end of despotism and corruption.