Spain’s Restoration: The Regency of María Cristina and Rise of Nationalism
The Regency of María Cristina of Habsburg
Following the death of Alfonso XII in 1885, his wife, María Cristina of Habsburg, became regent until their son, Alfonso XIII, came of age. The political leaders Cánovas and Sagasta signed the Pact of El Pardo, committing to support the regency and facilitate a peaceful, alternating turnover of governments between their parties. Both leaders honored the agreement, and María Cristina respected the decisions of their governments.
However, this system, known as the turno pacífico (peaceful turn), led to increased corruption, primarily through electoral distortion. Elections were systematically manipulated through two main practices:
- The encasillado, where politicians pre-assigned electoral districts to ensure the victory of the designated party.
- Electoral fraud, or pucherazo, which included a wide range of irregularities, from vote-buying to ballot tampering.
This fraudulent system was enabled by caciquismo, a network of local political bosses (caciques) who controlled votes and guaranteed the predetermined election results.
Despite the corruption, several political actions were carried out during this stage:
- The Liberal Party promoted a press law, academic freedom, and a law of associations that legalized trade unions and workers’ parties. The Social Reform Commission was also created to study the living conditions of workers and propose improvements.
- The Conservative Party replaced its free-trade policy with protectionism to support national industry.
Opposition to the System: Anti-Dynastic Movements
The political system of the Restoration, established by Cánovas, was dominated by the Conservative and Liberal parties. These parties primarily represented the middle and upper classes, meaning a large portion of the population was excluded from political life. Opposition to this scheme was initially weak but intensified in the late nineteenth century. The main opposition groups were:
Republicanism
The failure of the First Republic had caused republicanism to fade from the political scene. However, its core ideas—such as opposition to the clergy, faith in progress, and the defense of social reforms—remained influential. Divisions persisted among republicans regarding the organization of the state (with figures like Pi y Margall and Salmerón holding different views) and the methods to achieve power. Over time, republicans began to recover, unify, and participate more actively in elections.
The Workers’ Movement
The working class had limited opportunities for action during the Restoration, as the rights of assembly and association were restricted. The labor movement was divided between anarchists and socialists. Pablo Iglesias founded the socialist PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party) and later the UGT (General Union of Workers) union. Socialist influence was strongest in Madrid, northern Spain, and Extremadura. In contrast, anarchism, promoted by figures like Anselmo Lorenzo, was more prevalent in Andalusia, Valencia, and Catalonia. Anarchists pursued three courses of action: organizing strikes, promoting education, and engaging in violent “direct action,” such as the assassination of Cánovas del Castillo and the bombing of the Liceo de Barcelona.
Carlism
Their defeat in the Third Carlist War caused a major crisis and division within the party. Some members accepted liberalism, while others, the fundamentalists, continued to uphold their traditionalist, anti-liberal ideas.
The Birth of Peripheral Nationalisms
Opposition to the dynasty was also fueled by anti-centralist sentiment. While regionalist movements developed in areas like Valencia and Andalusia, nationalism took deeper root in regions with their own distinct languages and cultures. The Crisis of ’98, following the loss of Spain’s last major colonies, further strengthened these movements.
Catalan Nationalism
Catalan nationalism emerged from the Renaixença, a cultural revival defending the Catalan language and culture. Initially, two schools of thought emerged: one more traditional and rural, and another more enlightened and bourgeois. The latter eventually prevailed with the creation of the Lliga Regionalista (Regionalist League), whose political ideas were reflected in the Bases de Manresa.
Basque Nationalism
This movement gained political significance with the founding of the PNV (Basque Nationalist Party). Its founder, Sabino Arana, criticized the industrialization of the Basque Country (Euskadi) for destroying the traditional rural way of life. Arana defended a traditional, rural, and Catholic society and, above all, advocated for the independence of the Basque Country (Euzkalerria).
Galician Nationalism
Galician nationalism, known as Rexurdimento, grew out of the defense of the Galician language. It eventually evolved into a political movement, partly in reaction to the region’s perceived economic and social backwardness.
Valencian Regionalism
A distinct regionalist movement also emerged in Valencia, which rejected both Spanish centralism and what it saw as encroaching Catalan nationalism.
The eventual collapse of the Restoration’s political system, exacerbated by these internal tensions and external crises, led to the establishment of a military dictatorship under Primo de Rivera in 1923.