Spain’s Restoration Era: Politics, Problems, and Dictatorship
The Political System of the Restoration
The political system was based on two pillars: the Constitution of 1876 and the turnismo, the peaceful alternation in power of the two main political parties: the Conservative Party, led by Antonio Canovas del Castillo and heir to the Moderates, and the Liberal Party, headed by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta and heir to the Progressives.
The Constitution of 1876
The Constitution of 1876 was moderate but flexible enough to allow the parties to govern without major changes. It established a comprehensive declaration of rights, with the possibility of further restrictions depending on the ruling party, shared sovereignty between the King and the Cortes (Parliament), and elections to determine the ruling party.
The Turnismo System
The turnismo was based on the peaceful alternation of parties in power. When the government weakened, the King would task the leader of the opposition with forming a new government. This involved summoning and rigging elections, using tactics such as electoral fraud and pressuring voters through local political bosses (caciques), individuals with great social and economic power at the departmental or local level.
Problems of the Restoration
The Restoration system faced many problems:
Opposition from Excluded Parties
Parties excluded from the turnismo, such as the Carlists, Democrats, and Republicans, formed a significant opposition.
The Rise of Regionalism
Regionalist movements challenged the centralist policies of the government. Catalan regionalism advocated for the recognition of Catalan as an official language, the existence of Catalan political parties and tribunals, and the autonomy of Catalonia (Bases de Manresa, 1892). Basque regionalism focused on the defense of their laws and traditions, while Andalusian and Galician regionalism focused on addressing economic and social problems.
The Growth of the Labor Movement
The labor movement grew due to the spread of socialism, following the founding of the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party) in 1879 and the UGT (General Union of Workers) in 1888, and anarchism, which founded the FTRE (Federation of Workers of the Spanish Region) in 1881.
The Disaster of 1898
The Disaster of 1898 consisted of the loss of Spain’s last major colonies: Cuba, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico.
The Crisis of the Restoration
The turnismo system was maintained between 1902 and 1917 under two new leaders: Antonio Maura, leading the Conservative Party, and José Canalejas, leading the Liberal Party. Both pursued a regeneracionista policy, attempting, unsuccessfully, to end caciquismo and implement social improvements.
The Tragic Week of Barcelona (1909)
The Tragic Week of Barcelona (1909) was the most prominent internal problem of the period. It was triggered by the mobilization of reservists to fight in the war in Morocco, caused by Spain’s attempt to establish a protectorate in the region. As the reservists were mostly fathers of families, the repression unleashed by the conservative government caused the breakdown of the pact with the Liberals and the resignation of President Maura.
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)
Military Directory (1923-1925)
In the first phase of the dictatorship (1923-1925), the government was in the hands of a military directory. This directory suspended the Constitution of 1876, dissolved the Cortes, banned political parties, repressed labor movements and nationalism, and defeated Moroccan forces after the Alhucemas landing (1925).
Civil Directory (1925-1930)
In the second phase (1925-1930), Primo de Rivera formed a civil directory. During this time, the government promoted irrigated agriculture and industry, and invested in the construction of roads and improved railways. However, the impact of the 1929 economic crisis, rising unemployment, resurgent labor movements and nationalism, and opposition from intellectuals led to Primo de Rivera’s resignation in 1930.
An attempt was then made to return to the parliamentary system, but the monarchy’s loss of prestige due to its support for the dictatorship led to a Republican victory in the 1931 elections, and Alfonso XIII left the country.