Spain’s Restoration Era & Early 20th Century Turmoil
1 – The Restoration Regime (1874-1898)
On December 29, 1874, Martínez de Campos’s pronouncement in Sagunto proclaimed King Alfonso XII, ending the democratic sexenio and initiating the Restoration, which concluded with Miguel Primo de Rivera’s coup d’état in 1923.
Bases
- 1876 Constitution
- Peaceful alternation of power
- Caciquismo (political bossism)
1.1. The 1876 Constitution and Party Alternation
The Restoration was constitutionally regulated by the 1876 Constitution, establishing a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament through male universal suffrage. Periods of exceptional state measures curtailed liberties and constitutional rights. Elections allowed for the alternation of power between the Conservative Party (Antonio Cánovas del Castillo) and the Liberal Party (Práxedes Mateo Sagasta).
1.2. Electoral Fraud and Caciquismo
The alternation of power between Liberals and Conservatives involved electoral fraud, manipulated by the government and local political bosses (caciques). Caciques controlled electoral districts through their influence, depending on people’s employment or job prospects.
Traps:
- Manipulation of the electoral roll
- Ballot boxes opened before voting
- Falsifying vote counts
2 – Catalanism (1874-1898)
Catalanism advocated for self-government for Catalonia.
2.1. Catalan Progress
Catalanism sought to improve the living and working conditions of the working classes. Valentí Almirall founded the Diari Català (1879) and published Lo Catalanisme (1886), proposing autonomy for Catalonia. The Memorial de Greuges (1885) denounced the oppression of Catalonia.
2.2. Conservative Catalanism
Josep Torras i Bages, a traditionalist Catalan, asserted in 1892 that one could not be a good Catholic without being a good Catalan. The 1892 Manresa Assembly drafted the Bases per a la Constitució Regional Catalana, outlining future functions for a Catalan government, advocating for Catalan as an official language, but it was not a democratic document and did not endorse universal suffrage.
3 – Labor Movement (1874-1898)
Marxism
In 1879, Pablo Iglesias founded the Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE), and in 1888, the General Union of Workers (UGT) was established.
Anarchism
Two tendencies emerged: some anarchists joined trade unions to pressure employers and the government for improvements for the proletariat, while others rejected any organization. The latter advocated for “propaganda by the deed,” including anti-state and anti-bourgeoisie terrorism. In 1897, Michele Angiolillo assassinated Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, the Head of Government.
4 – The Crisis of the Restoration (1898-1923)
Disaster of 1898
Spain was defeated by the United States in Cuba and the Philippines, losing its colonial empire. Cuban landowners, angered by Spain’s trade restrictions, supported the revolt led by José Martí in 1895. The Spanish army, under Valeriano Weyler, employed brutal methods against the Cubans. The explosion of the USS Maine provided the US with a pretext to declare war on Spain. In July 1898, the Treaty of Paris ceded the Philippines and Puerto Rico to the US, and Cuba gained independence.
4.2. Old and New Parties
Liberals and Conservatives governed until 1923. After the deaths of Cánovas in 1897 and Sagasta in 1903, the parties fragmented into smaller groups, hindering strong government and the resolution of national problems such as poverty, caciquismo, and Catalan demands. Republican and socialist parties grew.
4.3. New Catalan Political Map
Catalanism Growth
- The Lliga Regionalista, a conservative Catalan party, was founded in 1901.
- It defended Catalan interests and demanded autonomy, even gaining support from some military officers.
- In 1906, Solidaritat Catalana won the 1907 elections but dissolved due to internal conflicts. Francesc Cambó became a minister.
- In 1914, the Mancomunitat de Catalunya was established, the first Catalan governing body since 1714 (led by Enric Prat de la Riba and Josep Puig i Cadafalch).
Radical Republicanism
Alejandro Lerroux’s Radical Republican Party gained strength in Catalonia, appealing to workers with its anti-monarchist, Spanish nationalist, and anti-clerical stance.
4.4. Crisis of the Restoration
- Tragic Week (1909): A general strike against the war in Morocco escalated into a revolt in Barcelona, with barricades, burning buildings, and anti-clerical violence.
- The 1917 Crisis: A general strike called by the CNT and UGT demanded a new constitution, autonomy, and an end to caciquismo.
- Pistolerismo (1918-1923): Violent clashes between Andalusian day laborers and the Civil Guard in the latifundios (large estates) turned into a social war.
- Moroccan War (1906-1925): Spain’s attempt to establish a new colonial empire in the Rif led to resistance and the Moroccan War. The Annual Disaster in 1921, a major defeat against Abd el-Krim, weakened Spain.
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)
The Coup d’état and Power Organization
- On September 13, 1923, Primo de Rivera staged a coup d’état, establishing a Directory and suspending the 1876 Constitution.
- He created the Unión Patriótica, imposed press censorship, and repressed Catalanism (banning the Catalan flag, language, sardanes, and Catalan education).
- With French assistance, he resolved the Moroccan conflict.
Economic Aspects of the Dictatorship
The government intervened in the economy, investing in public works (such as the 1929 Barcelona International Exposition) and large infrastructure projects like the subway.