Spain’s Restoration Era (1874-1931): Politics, Society, and Crisis
The Restoration System in Spain (1874-1931)
Political System
The architect of the Restoration political system, Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, aimed to restore the monarchy and a representative system based on shared sovereignty and census suffrage. Cánovas, instrumental in Isabel II’s abdication in favor of her son Alfonso XII, sought to establish civil power with the king as supreme head of the army.
The Restoration was not a democratic system, but a liberal one, supported by a stable bipartisan system focused on business and the economy. Alfonsismo, defined by the Cánovas’ Sandhurst Manifesto, combined monarchism and liberalism, creating a conservative liberal political system based on:
- Recognition of the monarchy’s historical legitimacy.
- Shared sovereignty between king and parliament.
- Constitutional monarchy.
- Patriotism, liberalism, and Catholicism as foundational principles.
The monarchy’s role was to manage political life, ensuring the alternation of power between two dynastic parties:
- The Liberal-Conservative Party (Conservative Party), led by Cánovas del Castillo, comprised the aristocracy and gentry.
- The Liberal-Fusion Party (Liberal Party), led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, represented professional and middle classes with a more reformist and secular program.
Both were parties of notables, with newspapers, meeting points, and committees across all regions.
These parties alternated in power until the 1898 crisis. The Liberal Party entered government in 1881 upon Alfonso XII’s death. An agreement between Cánovas and Sagasta maintained the system during Maria Cristina of Habsburg’s regency. The Liberal government passed progressive legislation, including the abolition of slavery in the colonies and universal male suffrage. Power shifts were facilitated by a corrupt electoral system influenced by caciquismo (local political bosses), ensuring predictable election outcomes.
Cánovas’ policies achieved internal and external peace. The Third Carlist War ended in 1876, abolishing fueros (regional privileges) but later establishing an economic agreement with the Basque provinces. The Ten Years’ War in Cuba concluded in 1878 with the Pact of Zanjón, leaving the issue of slavery unresolved.
Constitution of 1876
The Constituent Cortes, initially elected by universal male suffrage, later established census suffrage. The 1876 Constitution blended elements of the 1845 and 1869 constitutions. It recognized shared sovereignty, included a Bill of Rights (suspendable), and established religious tolerance while maintaining Catholicism as the state religion. The Cortes comprised two chambers: Congress and the conservative Senate. The king held the power to convene and dissolve the Cortes, and the monarchy took precedence over the Constitution. The king shared executive power with the Cortes and served as supreme commander of the army.
Competing Systems: Carlism and Republicanism
Republicans equated democracy with the Republic, emphasizing education and science for progress. They promoted popular culture, exemplified by the founding of the Ateneo Obrero de Gijón in 1881. However, internal divisions hampered their effectiveness.
In Carlism, the pretender Charles VII, in exile, ushered in a new phase. Under Cándido Nocedal, fundamentalist Catholicism became central. The Carlist movement restructured around traditional boards, coordinating propaganda in provinces and localities. The Carlist deputy Mella represented Pamplona.
Colonial Wars and the Crisis of 1898
Cuba, a major sugar and tobacco producer, saw growing separatism supported by the Cuban Revolutionary Party. The Pact of Zanjón ended the Ten Years’ War, but the insurgency resumed in 1895 (Grito de Baire), led by José Martí and military leaders Antonio Maceo and Máximo Gómez. Spain sent General Arsenio Martínez Campos for peacemaking, followed by General Valeriano Weyler, who implemented harsher measures.
The Spanish-American War, triggered by the sinking of the USS Maine and U.S. intervention in Cuba and Puerto Rico, ended with Spain’s defeat. The Treaty of Paris recognized Cuban independence.
The disaster was a blow to Spanish morale and prestige, with significant casualties and economic losses. The political crisis led to the rise of new leaders like Antonio Maura and José Canalejas. The defeat spurred criticism of Spanish politics and was ultimately met with resignation.