Spain’s Restoration (1874-1931): Constitution, Bipartisanship, and Opposition
The Cánovas System: The 1876 Constitution and the Turn of Parties
The new political system designed by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo was based on a two-party system (Conservative and Liberal) that alternated in power. This system marginalized large segments of the population through controlled elections and limited political participation. To ensure stability, the two dynastic parties agreed on a new constitution in 1876.
The Constitution of 1876
Following the 1876 elections, the winning government granted some representation to the opposition, including Republicans. This constitution, the longest-lasting in liberal Spain, was characterized by its brevity. It synthesized elements of the 1845 and 1869 constitutions. The basic structure followed the 1845 doctrine, with a bill of rights similar to that of 1869. However, the implementation of these rights was delayed. Sovereignty was shared between the Cortes and the King. Suffrage was not universal, but the right of association and freedom of worship (for non-Catholics) were included. The Senate had a mixed composition, with some members elected and others appointed by the King or holding lifetime positions. Local and provincial councils were controlled by diputaciones (provincial governments) with powers defined by special laws. The King was inviolable and not responsible for government actions. He held executive power, appointed and dismissed ministers, and decided when a cabinet should be replaced.
An Imperfect Two-Party System
For forty years, two major parties controlled the political landscape: the Conservatives and the Liberals. These parliamentary parties were led by powerful figures who enforced strict discipline. They were minority parties, attracting various factions based on local interests or political patronage rather than substantial ideological differences.
- The Conservative Party: Led by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, it drew from former Moderates, the Liberal Union, and dissident Constitutionalists. Its support base included the aristocracy, large landowners, and Catalan and Basque industrialists. It also enjoyed the support of the Church hierarchy and non-fundamentalist Catholics (reinforced by Pope Leo XIII’s 1882 encyclical, Cum Fine).
- The Liberal Party: Originating from the Constitutional Party of King Amadeo I, it included left-wing Unionists (Serrano) and Sagasta’s Progressives. It was influential among professionals, merchants, bankers, soldiers, and officials. Its leader was Práxedes Mateo Sagasta.
- The Republican Opposition: A significant threat to the Restoration, it was divided between those advocating insurrection (Ruiz Zorrilla) and those supporting electoral and political struggle (Castelar, Federalists, and Pi i Maragall, who later evolved towards Catalan nationalism).
Other political movements included Carlism (which evolved towards ultra-Catholicism and regionalism) and Caciquismo. Caciquismo was a system of coercion organized by the ruling classes to exclude the masses from the political system and prevent revolutionary uprisings.
Political Opposition: Regionalism and Nationalism
In 1885, after the death of Alfonso XII, the two-party system reached an agreement known as the Turno Pacífico (Peaceful Turn), establishing a rotation of power. This aimed to stabilize the system against potential Republican resurgence and the rise of nationalisms. Following Almirall in the 1890s, leadership shifted to more conservative sectors. The 1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition and the Catalan legal defense against the 1889 Civil Code reform led to a confederation of Catalan nationalist groups known as the Unió Catalanista. This group approved the Bases de Manresa, a document with predominantly traditionalist and liberal characteristics.
In the Basque Country, the 1876 reform of the fueros (regional charters) sparked a strong reaction, leading to a foralist movement advocating for the restoration of traditional Basque society. A cultural movement, Euskera, defended the Basque language and culture against the Hispanization process caused by the influx of non-Basques (maketos) into industrial areas. Sabino Arana combined foralist tradition and Euskera to create the first Basque nationalist program, implemented through the founding of the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) in 1894. This program exalted the social order based on religion, family, and property; criticized the Basque ruling class for encouraging industrialization and destroying traditional society; and attacked socialist workers influenced by foreign ideas and immigrants. After Arana’s death, Basque nationalism moderated its program in 1902 and gained influence throughout the Basque Country. Other nationalist movements emerged later in Galicia, Valencia, and Andalusia.