Spain’s Restoration (1874-1923): Bourbon Dynasty, Politics, and Power
1. The Restoration: Concept and Timeline
The Restoration, a historical period spanning from Alfonso XII’s proclamation in 1874 to Primo de Rivera’s military coup in 1923, marked the return of the Bourbon dynasty, traditional values, and the oligarchy. This era is divided into two main stages:
a) 1874-1902: Laying the Foundations
This stage, known as the foundational monarchy, is further split into two sub-stages:
- Reign of Alfonso XII (1874-1885)
- Regency of Maria Christina of Austria for Alfonso XIII (1885-1902)
b) 1902-1923: Crisis and Decomposition
Coinciding with most of Alfonso XIII’s reign, this phase witnessed the crisis and decomposition of the Restoration’s political system.
2. Origins of the Restoration
Several factors contributed to the Restoration:
- The oligarchy’s desire to regain power: Seeking to reclaim control lost in 1868, the oligarchy aimed to suppress popular demands.
- Isabella II’s abdication: Essential for renewing the dynasty’s image, her abdication in favor of her son, Alfonso, allowed the monarchy to regain public support.
- Cánovas del Castillo’s influence: The mastermind behind the Restoration, Cánovas sought to portray the Bourbons’ return as an act of popular will. The Sandhurst Manifesto, written by Cánovas but signed by Prince Alfonso, promised a monarchy reconciling liberal principles with order and stability.
- Martínez Campos’s pronouncement: The proclamation of Alfonso XII as king by Martínez Campos in Sagunto solidified the Restoration.
3. Constraints on the Political System
Cánovas del Castillo not only orchestrated the Bourbons’ return but also shaped the new political system, influenced by several factors:
- Maintaining a liberal facade: After six years of democracy, a return to authoritarianism was challenging. The new system needed to maintain a liberal appearance, with a constitution guaranteeing rights and a parliament as the center of power.
- Ensuring political stability: Pronouncements and uprisings had to be avoided to prevent another revolution. Stability was paramount.
- Securing oligarchic dominance: The system had to guarantee the political and social dominance of the landowning, industrial, and financial oligarchy who supported the Bourbons’ return.
4. Theoretical Basis of Cánovas’s System
Cánovas’s system rested on three principles:
a) The Internal Constitution
Cánovas believed that nations evolve historically, developing unwritten rules and traditions, forming an “internal constitution.” In Spain, he identified the king and the Cortes (parliament) as key institutions, justifying the principle of joint sovereignty.
b) The Written Constitution
Recognizing the need for a formal text, Cánovas established a Commission of Notables to draft a constitution. The resulting Constitution of 1876, characterized by its elasticity, became Spain’s longest-standing constitution. It established shared sovereignty, recognized Catholicism while allowing private worship, created a bicameral parliament, and granted significant powers to the king.
c) Bipartisanship
Inspired by the British model, Cánovas promoted a two-party system. He created the Conservative Party, while Sagasta founded the Liberal Party. These dynastic parties, both representing the oligarchy, were meant to alternate in power, ensuring stability.
5. The System in Practice
While the system theoretically involved parliamentary elections and the king’s appointment of the majority party’s leader, the reality was different:
- Turnismo: Power alternation was pre-arranged between the two parties.
- Caciquismo (bossism): Elections were manipulated through a network of local bosses (caciques) to ensure the victory of the designated party.
6. Caciquismo
Caciques, influential figures like landowners, manipulated elections through various methods: blackmail, extortion, voter fraud, and violence. This system ensured the oligarchy’s continued dominance.
7. Consequences of Cánovas’s System
The system achieved political stability but at the cost of genuine popular representation. It maintained a liberal facade while functioning as an oligarchy.
8. Political Practice
During Alfonso XII’s reign, Cánovas focused on:
- Military subordination to civilian authority.
- Pacification of the kingdom: Ending the Third Carlist War and the Ten Years’ War in Cuba.
- Limiting rights and freedoms: Restrictive electoral laws, press control, and academic restrictions.
In 1881, Sagasta’s government introduced some liberalization, but the underlying structure of the system remained unchanged.