Spain’s Regency Era: Maria Cristina & Espartero (1833-1843)
The Spanish Regencies: Maria Cristina & Espartero (1833-1843)
Maria Cristina’s Regency (1833-1840)
Fernando VII died on September 29, 1833, and his widow, Maria Cristina, assumed the regency. This period solidified the division within liberalism into two main streams: Moderate Liberals, who sought a balance between absolutism and popular sovereignty, and Progressive Liberals, who advocated for the principles of the Cortes of Cadiz and comprehensive social and political reform.
The Royal Statute (1834-1835)
Carlos María Isidro claimed the crown based on the Salic Law, initiating the First Carlist War. Maria Cristina appointed Francisco Martínez de la Rosa to form a new government. He conceived the Royal Statute, a constitution granted by royal decree. It established a bicameral Cortes, summoned by the monarch. However, a cholera epidemic, the ongoing civil war, the killing of monks, and the weakness of state finances and debt strained relations between the government and the Cortes.
Progressive Governments (1835-1837)
A new government took office, implementing major reforms with the help of Juan Álvarez Mendizábal. The urban militia played a significant role in several uprisings. The escalating tension led Mendizábal to form a new, more revolutionary government.
Mendizábal’s Disentailment
Between 1835 and 1837, Spain underwent a political transition towards a liberal system. Mendizábal aimed to swiftly end the Carlist War through the disentailment (confiscation and sale) of church property. However, his plans were largely unsuccessful, and the war continued.
The Constitution of 1837
The Mutiny of the Sergeants of La Granja led to a change in government, bringing progressives to power. The most significant outcome of this revolt was the convening of Parliament, which approved the Constitution of 1837, a document with a progressive character. Key changes included:
- Reinforced the power of the Crown, granting it the right of veto.
- The Cortes became bicameral, comprising the Congress of Deputies and the Senate.
- Maintained the separation of powers and individual rights.
- The electoral law of 1837 established census suffrage, though it also allowed for the manipulation of election results.
The Moderate Triennium (1837-1840)
From 1837 to 1840, Spain experienced three years of moderate governments. Military figures, notably the moderate Leopoldo O’Donnell and the progressive Baldomero Espartero, played prominent roles. The signing of the Convention of Vergara (1839), which effectively ended the First Carlist War, caused a progressive uprising in Madrid, forcing a government change. Maria Cristina signed a law concerning municipalities, which led to Espartero’s demand for her resignation. She initially refused. Several popular revolts ensued, leading to further government changes. After repeated clashes with Espartero, Maria Cristina appointed him chairman and subsequently resigned from the regency.
The First Carlist War (1833-1839)
Carlism championed traditional values: absolute monarchy, the defense of religion, and the privileges of the Ancien Régime. Its social base comprised the clergy, impoverished peasants, segments of the nobility, and some middle-class elements.
The First Carlist War began with the death of Fernando VII in 1833. It can be divided into phases:
- First Phase (1833-1835): Marked by the death of Carlist commander Tomás de Zumalacárregui.
- Second Phase (1835-1837): Characterized by the expeditions of General Ramón Cabrera, including the dramatic Royal Expedition.
- Third Phase (1837-1839): Concluded with the triumph of government troops. Within Carlism, a split emerged between more conservative factions and those less radical, willing to negotiate. The latter prevailed, leading to the signing of the Convention of Vergara between Espartero and Rafael Maroto. Despite this, Espartero faced challenges in fully suppressing remaining Carlist resistance.
Espartero’s Regency (1840-1843)
Espartero’s Authoritarian Rule
Espartero never secured a majority in the Congress of Deputies, yet he governed in an authoritarian manner. He demanded the regency and succeeded with the support of the ‘Ayacuchos’ (a liberal military faction) and some moderates. His rule was partly financed by the sale of church property, especially after the Holy See severed relations with Spain in 1837. Espartero also favored free trade. In 1841, an uprising led by Leopoldo O’Donnell failed.
Crisis of the Regency
The crisis of Espartero’s regency began in 1842 with social unrest in Barcelona, fueled by his free-trade policy, which allowed cheaper European textiles to flood the market. An uprising erupted and was brutally suppressed by the bombing of Barcelona. Espartero’s support rapidly declined. A rebellion spread throughout Spain, with progressives, moderates, and figures like Ramón María Narváez confronting Espartero’s army. Espartero resigned from the regency and went into exile. In 1843, Elizabeth II was declared of age, ending the regency period.