Spain’s Political Upheaval: From Primo de Rivera’s Coup to the Second Republic
The Coup of General Primo de Rivera (1923)
Gestation of the Coup
Primo de Rivera, with 14 years of military service including stints in the Philippines, Cuba, and Morocco, orchestrated a coup in 1922. He aimed to suppress the escalating social unrest in Catalonia and the rest of Spain. Seeking support from other military figures, he prepared for his takeover. King Alfonso XIII was aware of the brewing coup but remained ambiguous, neither actively supporting nor opposing it. His inaction, perhaps to avoid implications from the Annual disaster, ultimately allowed the coup to proceed.
Supporters and Opponents
- Supporters: The Monarch, the resigning Liberal government, the public, the press, “Africanist” military faction, conservatives, the Church, the aristocracy, the Catalan bourgeoisie, the PSOE, the UGT, and Ortega y Gasset.
- Opponents: The outlawed PCE and CNT, and the exiled Unamuno.
The Military Directory (1923-1925)
A Regenerationalist Dictatorship: Challenges
Primo de Rivera’s seven-year dictatorship is divided into two phases: the Military Directory (1923-1925) and the Civil Directory (1925-1930). The dictator’s personality—his charisma, perceived disdain for intellectuals and religion, and his humor—made him popular. His political approach favored simple solutions. Measures included abolishing the Constitution, suppressing political parties, implementing martial law, censoring the press, dissolving municipalities and provincial councils, and replacing civil governors with military ones. Key challenges included terrorism, social disorder, political corruption, religious piety, labor relations, the Moroccan question, and Catalan separatism.
Addressing Terrorism and Social Disorder
Bombings and strikes decreased as the military suppressed dissent and labor movements. This, combined with a favorable economic climate and protectionist policies, fostered economic progress.
Corruption, Despotism, and Political Reform
Corruption and despotism were intertwined. Caciquismo (political patronage) was targeted, and recommendations were banned. Former caciques joined the dictator’s new political party, the Patriotic Union, while traditional parties were silenced. This party aimed to unite the Catholic bourgeoisie, merchants, industrialists, and former caciques.
The Moroccan Question
Morocco, a constant drain on resources, was a persistent problem. Primo de Rivera had previously advocated withdrawal. A strategic retreat and troop reduction began. However, Abd-el-Krim’s attack on the French protectorate led to French requests for Spanish assistance. The joint Alhucemas landing resulted in Abd-el-Krim’s defeat and deportation. This victory boosted Primo de Rivera’s popularity, appeased the “Africanist” faction, and expanded the Spanish Legion.
The Civil Directory and Regime Decline (1925-1930)
Economic Reforms and State Intervention
Following the Moroccan success, the regime consolidated, with economic progress boosting public approval. Expositions were held in Seville and Barcelona. A corporatist model, between capitalism and socialism, was pursued, leading to the creation of the National Corporate Organization. The state managed funds and issued government bonds, accumulating significant debt that the Second Republic would inherit. Tax reform, however, failed to materialize. Other actions included building schools and expanding the teaching force, constructing roads and railways, improving waterworks, and reforestation. New businesses, like Hispano-Suiza, were created, and monopolies, such as tobacco and Campsa, were established.
Social Reforms
Despite criticism, social peace and employment stability prevailed during an economic boom. Laws were enacted to improve workers’ conditions, including restrictions on women’s work, maternity benefits, increased social security, Sunday rest, and public housing construction.
System Decomposition
Opposition to the dictator mounted from various groups: the PCE, CNT, FAI, PSOE, UGT, former liberals and conservatives, republicans, the military, Catalan nationalists, academics, intellectuals, the press, the Church, and even the monarchy. As the economy faltered, criticism of Primo de Rivera intensified, leading to his resignation.
The Fall of the Monarchy (1930-1931)
The “Dictablanda” of Berenguer and the Pact of San Sebastián
King Alfonso XIII appointed General Berenguer, who attempted to restore the 1876 Constitution and the traditional two-party system. However, opposition grew, and the international economic crisis of 1929 exacerbated social tensions, leading to closures, unemployment, and strikes. Republicanism gained momentum among republicans, intellectuals, the middle classes, Catalan nationalists, and opposition parties and unions. The Pact of San Sebastián in 1930 laid the groundwork for a republican regime, and a military revolt erupted in Jaca. Berenguer called for elections, but republicans and socialists boycotted them, leading to his resignation.
The Revolt of the Masses and the Advent of the Republic
Admiral Aznar’s government called for elections on April 12, 1931. The resulting victory for republican candidates ushered in the Second Spanish Republic, greeted with widespread enthusiasm.