Spain’s Political Evolution: 1868-1898
The Glorious Revolution
Much of the last period of the reign of Elizabeth II was characterized by a phase of economic expansion that affected all of Europe. But in the mid-1860s, the start of a major economic crisis became clear. On September 19, 1868, the squadron under the command of Topete staged a military uprising against the government of Isabel II. The government sent an army from Madrid, under the command of General Serrano, to cope. After the victory, the government resigned and the queen was forced into exile. The Constitution of 1869 was characterized by national sovereignty; the monarchy was the form of governance. The courts were bicameral (Congress and Senate). The legislative power resided in Parliament, the executive in the government, and the judicial in the judges. Universal male suffrage was established. Rights included the ability to demonstrate, assemble, and associate.
The Reign of Amadeo I
Political situation: On the right were the Carlists, who defended the primacy of Catholicism and the traditional monarchy. The moderates, faithful to Elizabeth II, demanded her return to the throne (Cánovas). In the center were the unionists, progressives (Prim), and Democrat-monarchists. They defended the monarchical form of government, but subject to national sovereignty and with broad respect for civil liberties. On the left, the Republican Federal Party (Pi y Margall) defended the republican form of government, the separation of church and state, and secularism; they opposed military intervention in politics and advocated for the implementation of democratic rights and state intervention in regulating labor conditions. Two trends emerged: the benevolent and the uncompromising. The former believed that federalism should be established “top-down” (driven by the government). The latter supported a popular uprising, with a federal state built “bottom-up”. The unitarians (Castelar) advocated for a unitary republic.
The First Republic
Following the resignation of Amadeo I, the courts decided to proclaim a republic, adopted on February 11, 1873. Estanislao Figueras was elected to head the government. Many in the House were monarchists, and their vote was a strategy to gain time and organize the return of the Bourbons to the throne. Federalists constituted revolutionary boards to remove the old monarchist officials from the administration. In the cities, there were popular demonstrations; among the labor movement, demands for reduced working hours, increased wages, and the immediate implementation of the federal state became widespread. Boards suppressed popular uprisings. Constituent Assembly elections were convened, and Republicans won. The Court proclaimed the Federal Democratic Republic on July 7, 1873. The presidency was held by Pi y Margall, and its purpose was to undertake major reforms. However, the few months in power did not allow for the development of reformist legislation. In July, a draft of the new constitution was presented in Parliament, but as it was in line with the 1869 constitution, it was not approved.
The Bourbon Restoration
Conservative groups welcomed the restoration of the Bourbons because they hoped that the new monarchy would restore political stability and put an end to any attempt at democratic and social revolution in Spain. The Constitution of 1876 established: shared sovereignty; bicameral Cortes (Senate and Congress); legislative power shared between the Cortes and the King; census suffrage; a parliamentary monarchy as the form of government, with the monarch unquestionable, permanent, and acting as a moderator with extensive rights; and restricted rights of the press, expression, association, and assembly. Catholicism was declared the state religion. Cánovas introduced a system of government based on bipartisanship and the alternation in power of the two great dynastic political parties, the Conservative and Liberal, to renounce the statements as a mechanism to access the government. Caciquismo was a phenomenon that occurred throughout Spain but reached its peak in Andalusia, Galicia, Castilla la Mancha, and Extremadura. The caciques were notable figures, especially in rural areas, often rich landowners who gave work to laborers and had a great influence on local life and politics. With their influence, they guided the direction of the vote.
The Crisis of 1898
The agreements of the Peace of Zanjón were not fulfilled due to strong opposition from major landowners, slave traders, and merchants in the Peninsula. In Cuba, two major parties were created: the Autonomist Party, composed mostly of Cubans, and the Constitutional Union. In 1879, the Little War began. The uprising was defeated the following year. A few years later, the Grito de Baire began a general uprising. The rebellion began in Santiago de Cuba and spread to the capital. Cánovas sent an army commanded by General Martínez Campos. The U.S. interest in Cuba had led to different proposals to purchase the island, which Spain had always rejected. After the incident of the battleship Maine, the two powers began a series of naval engagements, the Battle of Santiago and the Battle of Cavite, in which Spain was defeated. This concluded with the Peace of Paris, by which Spain agreed to leave Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, which would become protectorates of the USA. The political crisis that had been predicted did not occur, and the system of the Restoration survived, ensuring the continuity of the Turno. Thus, the crisis of 1898 was essentially a moral and ideological crisis, which caused a psychological impact among the population.