Spain’s Political and Social Crisis (1917-1923): From System Decomposition to Military Coup
Spain’s Political and Social Crisis (1917-1923)
System Decomposition (1917-1923)
Between 1917 and 1923, the failure of governments to deeply reform the political system, coupled with significant social unrest and political tensions stemming from the Moroccan War, resulted in the collapse of the Restoration regime.
The Political Breakdown
The Restoration regime’s decay stemmed from the dynastic parties’ lack of interest in political renewal. From 1917 onwards, the frequent use of concentration governments, most notably Maura’s National Government, proved ineffective. Between 1918 and 1923, ten government changes occurred, none lasting a year. Despite electoral fraud, no party secured a majority, leading to exceptional measures, including the suspension of constitutional guarantees and parliamentary closures. Socialist and Republican alternatives failed to materialize. The Radical party, losing working-class support under Lerroux, shifted towards conservatism. Meanwhile, the Reformist party under Alvarez aligned with dynastic Liberals, while the Socialist Party grew in membership and electoral strength. Its new leaders favored parliamentarism and moderate reformist policies. In the context of the Third International, a faction left the PSOE in 1921, establishing the Communist Party of Spain (PCE).
Labor Unrest, Gunmen, and the Bolshevik Triennium
The post-World War I years witnessed significant unrest in Europe. The Bolshevik Revolution and the Soviet state inspired revolutionary groups. In Spain, the war’s end caused economic hardship: production declined, unemployment rose, and prices soared, mobilizing workers and boosting trade unionism. A 1919 strike in Catalonia, lasting a month and a half, resulted in concessions from employers, including reinstatement of dismissed workers, pay raises, and an 8-hour workday. However, the failure to release detainees reignited the strike, prompting employer retaliation through business closures and union repression. In Andalusia, peasant misery fueled the “Bolshevik Triennium” (1918-1921). Anarchists, and to a lesser extent Socialists, led peasant revolts driven by land hunger and deteriorating living conditions. Córdoba spearheaded a movement spreading to La Mancha and Extremadura. Labor conflicts intensified between unions and employers, particularly in Catalonia. Employers formed the Employers’ Federation, hired gunmen to target labor leaders, and implemented business closures. The Free Trade Union was also founded. Unions grew, and the CNT’s Sants conference advocated for direct worker-employer negotiations. General Martínez Anido’s policy of protecting employer gunmen and repressing trade unionists, along with the Law on Leaks, led to the period known as *pisolerismo*.
The Disaster of Annual and Its Consequences
Spain’s Moroccan protectorate, economically unproductive and geographically challenging, saw waning business interest. The army was divided between peninsular and African forces, creating conflict over war-merit promotions. Proponents of colonial policies were termed “Africanists.” Following the failure of the 1909 Moroccan War truce, France and Spain resumed military actions. Riffian leaders successfully resisted colonial armies. General Berenguer successfully occupied western Morocco, while General Fernández Silvestre’s rapid eastern advance resulted in 13,000 Spanish casualties at Annual. This defeat had significant consequences. Public and press outrage blamed the government and army, creating a rift between the military and political class. The government resigned, replaced by a Maura concentration government. A parliamentary committee, tasked with investigating (the Picasso file), clashed with the army. The Moroccan issue fueled a political crisis, culminating in Miguel Primo de Rivera’s military coup.