Spain’s Path to Conflict: Dictatorship, Republic, and Civil War

Posted on Oct 4, 2025 in History

Primo de Rivera’s Military Dictatorship (1923–1930)

By 1923, dissatisfaction with the Restoration Monarchy was widespread. General Miguel Primo de Rivera established a military dictatorship with the avowed aim of taking a break from political life to end corruption.

Stages of the Dictatorship

  • Early Years: Initially, Primo de Rivera enjoyed some popularity, even within the workers’ movement. The protectorate in Morocco was pacified by a French-Spanish alliance in 1925.
  • Maintaining Power: A strong economy allowed the dictator to remain in power, but the regime faced growing hostility among many groups.
  • 1929 Crisis and Resignation: The economic prosperity bubble burst after the Wall Street Crash. In early 1930, Primo de Rivera resigned and retired to Paris.

Principles of the Second Spanish Republic

Secularism

There was no longer an official state religion. The state acknowledged the right of any religion to worship, but not in public spheres.

Regionalism

The right for the regions to establish Statutes of Autonomy was recognized.

Social Economy and Workers’ Rights

The state allowed all workers of every class to organize. The state was also allowed to take property from owners when acting in public interest. Workers’ rights, such as unemployment benefits, maximum working hours, and holidays, were recognized.

International Involvement in the Civil War

The Non-Intervention Policy

The major European democracies called on all countries to adhere to a Non-Intervention Agreement. Signatories included Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union. This policy effectively obstructed the Republican government from acquiring arms and food supplies, particularly in big cities.

Foreign Support for the Nationalist Side

Fascist Germany and Italy soon ignored the embargo:

  • Germany (Hitler): Brought in troops through Portugal. The best-organized unit operating in Spain was the Condor Legion.
  • Italy (Mussolini): Sent men and provided substantial Italian assistance.

Foreign Support for the Republican Side

The Soviet Union also ignored non-intervention and supplied the Republic:

  • The Soviet Union involved a secret military mission, code-named Operation X, which included armaments, soldiers, and advisors. This was agreed upon with the Spanish government in exchange for Spain’s gold reserves.

Key Military Campaigns of the Spanish Civil War

Initial Movements and the Battle for Madrid (1936)

  • African Airlift: Hitler and Mussolini provided Franco with planes to transport troops from Africa to Seville.
  • Objective Madrid: General Franco led the African troops from the south, while Mola commanded the army from the north. In September, Francoist troops took Badajoz and arrived in the Tajo Valley. Mola’s troops in the north took Gipuzkoa and closed the French border to the Republicans.
  • Nationalist Victory in Toledo: Franco turned his army south to Toledo, where Nationalist soldiers were resisting the Republican siege in the Alcázar. Franco’s troops won a symbolic victory.
  • The Battle for Madrid: In 1936, Nationalist troops reached the capital. The government evacuated Madrid and headed to Valencia, but Republicans successfully resisted the initial assault in Madrid.

The Northern Front and Major Battles (1937–1938)

  • The Northern Front: The bombing of Gernika (Guernica) helped the Nationalists gain a decisive victory in Biscay. Despite a Republican offensive in Aragon intended to slow the Nationalist advance, Cantabria and Asturias were also taken.
  • The Battle of Teruel (Dec 1937 – Feb 1938): One of the bitterest battles of the war. Nationalists gained a strategic victory, allowing them to advance towards the Mediterranean. Catalonia was isolated.
  • The Battle of the Ebro (Jul – Nov 1938): The Republican offensive failed, and Franco deployed mass forces to invade Catalonia. Only Madrid, Valencia, and a few other strongholds remained for the Republican forces.

The End of the War (1939)

  • Civil War within the Civil War: In March 1939, internal conflict within the Republican Army caused the government in Valencia to fall. Attempts to negotiate a peace deal failed, as Franco only accepted unconditional surrender. Juan Negrín, the president of the government, fled to France.
  • Victory Proclaimed: The Nationalists started a general offensive, occupying Madrid and controlling all Spanish territory. Franco proclaimed victory on 1 April 1939.

Political Dynamics During the Conflict

The Republican Side: Division and Unity Attempts

The Republican zone saw workers collectivize industry in the cities and land distributed among peasants. The central conflict was between Revolution or Victory, leading to a lack of unity and discipline.

In September 1936, Francisco Largo Caballero formed a coalition government in Valencia to unify the Republic. Key divisions included:

  • Anarchists (CNT and FAI): Believed the war made it possible to start a revolution immediately.
  • Communists (PCE and PSUC): Believed that victory against Franco was the most important objective, prioritizing military discipline over revolution.

Following the fall of Largo Caballero in May 1937, Juan Negrín was named president of the new government.

The Nationalist Side: Franco’s Consolidation of Power

After Sanjurjo was killed, command was split between General Mola in the north and General Franco in the south.

Franco Becomes Generalissimo and Caudillo

  • In September 1936, General Franco was named Supreme Commander of the Nationalist forces (Generalísimo).
  • On 18 November 1936, Germany and Italy formally recognized Franco’s government.
  • In April 1937, Franco forcibly unified the major right-wing parties (Falange, Carlistas, and Renovación Española) into a single party: Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista (FET y de las JONS), with himself as Caudillo (leader).

Consequences of the Spanish Civil War

Demographic and Economic Impact

The war resulted in immense human and economic costs:

  • Human Losses: Approximately one million people were lost due to direct combat, deaths caused by food shortages, the drop in the birth rate, and those who went into exile.
  • Economic Impact: The economic devastation of the war was extremely high, leading to decades of hardship.

Political Repression and Violence

The conflict was marked by severe political repression and the killing of civilians on both sides:

  • In the Republican Zone: A lack of central authority led to violence by uncontrolled groups, notably seen in events like the Model Prison killings and the Paracuellos massacre in Madrid.
  • In the Nationalist Zone: Repression targeted perceived enemies of Spain, including intellectuals and political opponents. The poet Federico García Lorca was a prominent victim.