Spain’s Old Regime Crisis: From Charles IV to Carlist War
The Crisis of the Old Regime in Spain
Charles IV ascended to the throne in 1788 amidst the backdrop of revolutionary France. The ensuing war against France, declared by a coalition, ended in defeat for Spain. Manuel de Godoy, a figure close to the king but despised by many, initiated reforms including the desamortización (disentailment) of ecclesiastical lands, a reduction in the power of the Inquisition, and an alliance with France.
The Aranjuez Mutiny (March 18, 1808)
The Aranjuez Mutiny, fueled by discontent with Godoy, led to his downfall and the abdication of Charles IV in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII. Charles then sought Napoleon’s assistance, paving the way for the French invasion of Spain. Joseph Bonaparte was installed as king, attempting to dismantle the Ancien Régime through land confiscation from the clergy, the abolition of noble privileges, the establishment of equality before the law, and the suppression of the Inquisition.
Spanish Resistance
On May 2nd, the people of Madrid rose up against the French presence, sparking widespread resistance throughout the country. The afrancesados (French sympathizers) supported the new monarch, while most Spaniards opposed him. The clergy and nobility sought a return to absolutism, while enlightened liberals saw an opportunity for reform, advocating for a parliamentary system. The Spanish people mounted a fierce defense against foreign occupation. Napoleon’s ambition to control the Iberian Peninsula, including Portugal, met with strong resistance. Ultimately, facing a two-front war (in Russia and Spain), Napoleon agreed to end the conflict in Spain, and French forces began withdrawing in 1812, completing their departure by 1823.
The Constitution of 1812
In the summer of 1808, the Junta Central Suprema (Supreme Central Board) was formed to direct the war effort. However, its inability to effectively govern led to the convocation of the Cortes (Parliament). The Constitution of 1812 embodied the commitment of the liberal bourgeoisie, while also recognizing the rights of the absolutist clergy. Key features included:
- Recognition of citizen rights.
- Division of powers:
- Legislative: The Cortes, representing the nation, with deputies elected every two years through universal male suffrage.
- Executive: The monarch as head of state, but with their power controlled by the Cortes, and ministerial decisions requiring ratification.
- Judicial: Independent courts.
- Tax reform.
- Mandatory public primary education.
The Constitution was progressive for its time, and laws were enacted to dismantle the obstacles of the Ancien Régime, including the suppression of seigneurial rights, the initial abolition of the Inquisition, and the desamortización. However, the ongoing war hindered the effective implementation of these reforms.
The Liberal Triennium and the Ominous Decade
Liberals sought to ensure that Ferdinand VII would uphold the constitutional monarchy. However, absolutists within the old regime opposed this. Ferdinand ultimately nullified the Constitution.
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
Colonel Rafael de Riego led a revolt, proclaiming the Constitution of 1812 in Andalusia. Some reforms were restored, including the liquidation of feudalism, the liberalization of industry and trade, and the establishment of a national militia. These reforms provoked opposition from the monarchy. Ferdinand conspired against the government. The poorest laborers, along with the nobility and the Church, encouraged revolt, leading to clashes between liberal factions: the exaltados (radicals) and the moderados (moderates).
The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)
The “Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis,” a French army, intervened to restore Ferdinand VII to absolute power. This ushered in a period of harsh repression against the liberal bourgeoisie. Ferdinand’s financial policies further distressed the economy.
The Dynastic Conflict and the Carlist Wars
The birth of Isabel (later Isabella II) triggered a succession conflict. Salic law, which prevented female succession, was in place. Ferdinand, influenced by his wife Maria Cristina, promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction, allowing Isabel to inherit the throne. Charles, Ferdinand’s brother, surrounded himself with supporters of the old regime. Maria Cristina, as regent, sought liberal support to counter the Carlists. Upon Ferdinand’s death, Charles proclaimed himself king, initiating the Carlist Wars in northern Spain, a conflict between absolutists (Carlists) and liberals (supporters of Isabella II).