Spain’s Late 19th Century: Crisis, Modernization, and Social Change
The Regency of María Cristina: Political System in Crisis (1885-1902)
After Alfonso XII’s death in 1885, his widow María Cristina served as regent until their son, Alfonso XIII, came of age. During this period, several crises significantly weakened the political system:
Challenges to Political Representation
Even after universal male suffrage was introduced in 1890, electoral fraud persisted. This created a growing divide between “official Spain” (the manipulated parliamentary system) and “real Spain” (the excluded population).
Rise of Regionalist Movements
Catalan Nationalism
Advocated for political recognition and cultural identity. The Regionalist League of Catalonia was founded in 1901.
Basque Nationalism
Focused on sovereignty and the protection of Basque traditions. The Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) was founded by Sabino Arana in 1894.
The Colonial Crisis and the Disaster of 1898
- Cuba’s independence movement led to prolonged wars (1868–1878 and 1895–1898).
- The United States intervened, leading to Spain’s defeat in the Spanish-American War (1898).
- The Treaty of Paris (1898) forced Spain to cede Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam to the United States. Subsequently, the Mariana Islands, Caroline Islands, and Palau were sold to Germany in 1899.
The Disaster of 1898 marked a profound turning point, deeply affecting Spanish morale and highlighting severe political mismanagement.
Gradual Economic Modernization in Late 19th-Century Spain
Despite being primarily agricultural, Spain experienced limited industrialization and modernization by the late 19th century.
Demographic Changes and Challenges
- Spain’s population growth lagged behind other European nations due to high mortality rates from wars, famine, and diseases (smallpox, measles, cholera).
- Life expectancy in 1900 was only 35 years.
Labor and Migration Patterns
- Most people (65%) worked in agriculture, but industrialization began to emerge in Catalonia and the Basque Country.
- Internal Migration: Many rural workers moved to industrial cities like Barcelona, Bilbao, and Madrid, though many faced unemployment and poverty.
- Emigration: A significant number of Spaniards migrated to Latin America.
Agricultural Sector Developments
- Little innovation occurred in cereal production.
- Modernization of olive, grape, and citrus farming in Levante and the Ebro Valley led to increased exports.
- Large landowners, aristocrats, and wealthy bourgeoisie dominated rural areas, while caciquismo (local political bosses) manipulated elections and controlled employment.
Finance and Industrial Growth
- The Bank of Spain was founded in 1865, and foreign investment significantly boosted railway development and industry.
- The government struggled with low tax revenues and high military expenditures, exacerbated by the Carlist Wars and colonial conflicts.
Social Changes and the Rise of the Labor Movement in Spain
Spain’s social structure was highly stratified:
Social Class Divisions
- Upper Class: Aristocrats and the high bourgeoisie controlled wealth and political power.
Middle Class
- Upper Middle Class: Comprised professionals, high-ranking officials, clergy, and military officers.
- Lower Middle Class: Included shop owners, artisans, and small entrepreneurs.
Working Class
- Rural Workers: Lived in extreme poverty, often leading to anarchist peasant uprisings.
- Urban Workers: Suffered from long hours, low wages, and poor living conditions.
Growth of the Labor Movement
The labor movement gained significant strength during this period:
- 1869: The Constitution allowed freedom of association, enabling the rise of workers’ organizations.
- 1873: The Spanish Regional Federation of the International Workingmen’s Association was created.
- 1879: Pablo Iglesias founded the Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE).
- 1888: The General Union of Workers (UGT) was established.
- Labor Reforms: Key laws were passed to regulate child labor (1873), trade unions (1887), and workplace accident compensation (1900).