Spain’s Glorious Revolution, WWI, and Unifications
The Glorious Revolution: A first attempt to establish democracy in Spain, marked by the approval of the Constitution of 1869. This was the most progressive Spanish constitution of the 19th century, establishing universal manhood suffrage and expanding rights and freedoms.
The period spanned six years, featuring two political systems:
- 1871 – 1873: Democratic Monarchy: King Victor Emmanuel’s son, Amadeo of Savoy, became king. However, he faced unpopularity and struggled to gain support. He abdicated after 3 years due to rejection from republicans, Carlists, and alfonsinos.
- 1872: Third Carlist War
- 1873 – 1874: First Republic: This period was fraught with problems, including demands for greater regional autonomy, the ongoing Carlist war, and calls for independence from Cataluña and the Basque Country. Disagreements arose over the desired form of government, with factions supporting a federal republic (like the USA) and others favoring a unitarian central government (like France). This led to a significant crisis.
During this time, La peseta became the country’s official currency. The First Republic saw four presidents and lasted only 11 months. In December 1874, a military uprising led to the restoration of the Monarchy and the Bourbon dynasty.
World War I: The Great War (1914 – 1918)
Main Causes:
- Militarism: Building up armed forces in preparation for war.
- Alliances: Agreements to defend and aid other countries.
- Imperialism: Efforts to build empires.
- Nationalism: Pride in one’s country and a desire to defend it. Many countries sought to break free from Austria.
Bismarck aimed to protect Germany by forming alliances, initially with Austria and Russia, and later with Great Britain. He sought to isolate France, fearing their desire for revenge. Wilhelm II dismissed Bismarck, admired Great Britain, and sought to establish overseas empires (in Africa and Asia) and build a navy, similar to Great Britain. This led to Great Britain breaking their alliances.
Alliances:
- Triple Entente: France, Great Britain, and Russia.
- Triple Alliance: Austro-Hungary, Germany, and Italy (Bismarck’s greatest fear: enemies on both the east and west).
Other factors contributing to the war included Germany’s military and naval buildup, the Alsace-Lorraine region, Germany’s feeling of encirclement by France and Russia, and Russia’s support for Slavs in Austria.
The immediate trigger was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne) in Sarajevo, Bosnia (part of Austro-Hungary). Serbia was blamed for the assassination.
Italian and German Unifications
Italian Unification: Initiated by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia in 1859, Italy was divided into three main parts: North, Middle, and South. King Victor Emmanuel II and his Prime Minister Cavour fought against Austria and expelled them from the northern regions of Italy. Subsequently, they conquered the rest of the Italian peninsula with the help of Garibaldi (and his red shirts, who fought against absolutism). Italy became a constitutional monarchy under King Victor Emmanuel II. The unification process concluded in 1871, with Rome becoming the capital.
German Unification: Germany defeated Denmark in 1864, Austria in 1866, and France (Napoleon III) in 1870-71. As a result of the war, France ceded the region of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany. Wilhelm I became king and was crowned in France (a humiliating event for the French). Germany rapidly gained prominence, developing a powerful army and navy, becoming a competitor to England, which had been the dominant power for years. Austria became an independent country, having been one of the two most important powers of the Holy Roman Empire.
The Scramble for Africa
1885 – Congress of Berlin: European powers decided to divide Africa. Spain had limited colonial holdings, primarily a small area on the west-north coast. Europeans believed in their superiority and sought to control the entire world. Russia controlled most of Asia, except for Korea, which was part of Japan (which was rising in importance). England controlled India. Afghanistan and Thailand were left independent to avoid conflicts between Russia, England, and China.
People Involved: Missionaries, explorers, traders, officials, soldiers, and politicians.
Boundaries were artificially drawn, often splitting tribal areas. Africans were unable to resist European weapons.