Spain’s Early 20th Century: Alfonso XIII to Primo de Rivera

Posted on Sep 21, 2025 in History

Spain Under Alfonso XIII (1902-1923)

The reign of Alfonso XIII began in 1902, marking a period of significant political and social upheaval in Spain.

Economic and Social Conditions

Worker conditions remained very poor in the early 20th century. This led to the emergence of spontaneous protests by industrial workers, often met with repression. Early labor movements formed to protect workers’ rights, culminating in the first general strikes.

Maura’s Conservative Government (1907-1909)

Following political instability under Alfonso XIII, the Conservatives chose Antonio Maura, who unified the party. His main policy initiatives included:

  • Reform of the Electoral Law of 1907.
  • Local Government Act.
  • Law on the Suppression of Terrorism (later withdrawn).
  • Economic and social measures, such as the Law of Internal Colonization and the establishment of Industrial Tribunals (which introduced Sunday rest, strike laws, and protection for domestic industry).

In July 1909, Barcelona experienced the Tragic Week, a series of violent confrontations. Maura’s regeneration policy faltered as he lost the king’s confidence due to these events, leading to his resignation in October.

Canalejas’ Liberal Government (1910-1912)

In 1910, José Canalejas led the Liberal Party government. He approved a consumption tax alongside a progressive tax on urban incomes. Other key legislation included:

  • The Law of Recruitment and Replacement (military service reform).
  • A draft Commonwealth of Catalonia, approved in Congress in 1912.
  • A law preventing the establishment of new religious orders for two years.

Canalejas was assassinated in 1912.

Spain and World War I (1914-1918)

Following Canalejas’ death, the king and his government adopted a neutral stance during World War I. This neutrality led to an exceptional boom in export growth, as Spain met the needs of belligerent countries. While it improved the trade balance, it also caused rising prices for staple products, severely hurting the lower classes and especially farmers. State officials also suffered, as their salaries did not keep pace with inflation.

The Triple Crisis of 1917

The summer of 1917 witnessed a triple revolutionary upheaval:

  1. Military Discontent: Some officers, organized into “Juntas de Defensa,” demanded that each military body control promotions and professional conditions.
  2. Political Opposition: While the Cortes were closed, 60 parliamentarians sought a constitutional amendment, but police broke up their assembly.
  3. Social Unrest: In August, the UGT and the CNT called a general strike in protest of rising prices. Their occupational demands included the eight-hour workday and a minimum wage increase.

The Disaster of Annual (1921)

In 1921, the Disaster of Annual occurred, resulting in the deaths of thousands of Spanish troops in Morocco, further destabilizing the political landscape.

Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship (1923-1930)

On September 13, 1923, Captain General Miguel Primo de Rivera staged a coup in Barcelona and declared a state of war. Prime Minister García Prieto resigned, and King Alfonso XIII instructed Primo de Rivera to form a government.

The Military and Civilian Directories

Initially, a Military Directory, chaired by Primo de Rivera, governed from 1923 to 1925. He dissolved the Cortes and suspended the Constitution of 1876, though it was not formally abolished. The government consisted of only one civilian minister, with the rest being military appointees.

In 1925, the Military Directory was replaced by a Civilian Directory, also chaired by Primo de Rivera, and composed mostly of civilian politicians.

Political and Ideological Foundations

Primo de Rivera promoted the Patriotic Union (UP), a political party based on defending the nation, the Church, and the King. Its ideology was conservative, authoritarian, and Spanish nationalist. In 1927, he convened a National Consultative Assembly, whose members drafted a new constitution.

Pacification of Morocco

The pacification of Morocco was the dictatorship’s greatest success. In September 1925, a decisive operation, including the famous landing at Al Hoceima, led to Abd el-Krim’s surrender to the French, thus securing the pacification of the Spanish protectorate.

Economic and Social Policies

Economic policy was characterized by increased state intervention and protectionism, which fostered the expansion of foreign trade and contributed to a thriving Spanish economy.

Social policy was based on corporatist committees, comprising representatives of employers and employees under the chairmanship of a government representative, aiming to regulate labor relations.

Reasons for Decline

The main reasons for the dictatorship’s decline included:

  • Growing discontent within the army.
  • Opposition from traditional political conservatives and liberals.
  • Mobilization of intellectuals and students protesting restrictions on freedom of expression.
  • The increasing concern of the king regarding the regime’s stability.