Spain’s Democratic Consolidation (1992-2008): Politics, Terrorism & Global Challenges

Posted on Sep 19, 2024 in History

The Consolidation of Democracy in Spain (1992-2008)

1. The Democratic System in Spain (1992-2008)

In 1992, the Barcelona Olympic Games were inaugurated, showcasing an image of a modern democratic country to the world.

1.1 Alternation in Government

Governance in Spain has alternated between the PSOE (1982-1996 & 2004-present) and the Popular Party (1996-2004). Felipe González served as president during the PSOE’s first tenure. Election results indicate a largely bipartisan political landscape. Nationalist parties in Catalonia, the Basque Country, and to a lesser extent, Galicia, are the primary exceptions to this pattern.

Between 1992 and 1996, the Socialists continued the reforms initiated in 1982:

  • Reforms:
  • Abortion Law
  • Extension of Social Security and healthcare to broader segments of the population
  • Modernization of the tax system
  • New education system
  • Modernization of the army
  • Conscientious objection to compulsory military service
  • Increased financing for autonomous communities (15% of income tax)

The triumph of the PP in 1996 brought a conservative party to power.

Actions of the PP (1996-2004):

  • Privatization of public companies
  • Immigration Law
  • National Hydrological Plan
  • New tax deduction laws
  • End of compulsory military service
  • Increased financing for autonomous communities (30% of income tax)

In 2000, the PP secured an absolute majority, accentuating its Spanish nationalist stance. Its participation in the Iraq War alongside the U.S. sparked significant opposition. On March 1, 2004, an Al-Qaeda terrorist attack in Madrid resulted in 192 deaths. Initially blamed on ETA, the attack ultimately led to the PSOE’s victory in the subsequent elections. Prime Minister Zapatero’s first decision was to withdraw troops from Iraq.

1.2 The Catalan Autonomy

Despite Catalonia’s autonomous status granted between 1977 and 2007, the relationship between Catalonia and the Spanish state has faced ongoing challenges.

Difficulties with autonomy:

  • Slow or non-existent transfer of government competencies
  • Laws reducing the powers of the Generalitat
  • Serious constitutional issues regarding funding

Between 1980 and 2003, CIU, led by Jordi Pujol, was the dominant political force in Catalonia. In 2003, a tripartite agreement (PSC, ERC, and ICV) enabled Pasqual Maragall to assume the presidency. This agreement was renewed in 2006 with José Montilla Aguilera.

Achievements of the Catalan Government (1980-2007):

  • Reorganization of the Generalitat
  • Linguistic normalization of Catalan
  • Creation of the Catalan Broadcasting Corporation
  • Reforms in education and healthcare
  • Increased number of schools and healthcare centers
  • Improvements in infrastructure
  • Organization and deployment of the regional police force (Mossos d’Esquadra)

Catalan political parties perceived the 1979 Statute of Autonomy as limiting self-governance. In 2005, the Catalan Parliament approved a new Statute with broader autonomy.

2. Other Challenges to Spanish Democracy

2.1 ETA Terrorism

ETA’s violence persisted throughout these years of democracy. The Spanish state responded with police action and political measures, including agreements to outlaw parties supporting ETA. Both PSOE and PP attempted unsuccessful peace talks with ETA.

2.2 The European Union Challenge

Spain joined the EEC in 1986, which evolved into the European Union in 1992.

Objectives of the European Union:

  • Economic and monetary union
  • Establishment of a single currency: the euro
  • Creation of European citizenship
  • Increased competencies for the European Parliament
  • Creation of a common security policy

EU integration necessitated the modernization of numerous economic sectors in Spain, leading to the closure of many companies. However, Spain benefited from European financial support, enabling major infrastructure projects.

3. Overcoming the Legacy of Francoism

The transition to democracy involved an unspoken pact of silence regarding officials linked to the Franco regime, including military, police, and judges, who were integrated into the democratic system. While this facilitated coexistence, it delayed the democratic process. Today, remnants of Francoism still exist, including monuments and the Valley of the Fallen, where Franco and Primo de Rivera are buried.

A movement for the recovery of historical memory has emerged, aiming to uncover the truth about the repression during the Civil War and Franco’s dictatorship, acknowledge the facts, and honor the victims.

4. The New World Order

The international relations system that emerged after the Cold War is characterized by the United States’ role as the sole superpower.

Characteristics of the New World Order:

  • The United States becomes the sole global superpower.
  • Capitalism is imposed as the dominant economic system.
  • The world revolves around three centers of economic power: the United States, the European Union, and Japan.
  • Major conflicts are related to global poverty, Islamic fundamentalism, and ethnic tensions.
  • Former communist countries, including Russia, face difficulties adapting to democracy and capitalism.

4.1 The United States: Global Policeman

The United States intervenes militarily worldwide to protect its interests.

Characteristics of U.S. military actions in the New World Order:

  • Actions are not unilateral but involve troops from allied countries.
  • Actions are often justified in the name of defending freedom and democracy.
  • Approval from the UN is often sought.

The United States played a significant role in the Gulf War (1991), which originated from Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait under Saddam Hussein. A coalition of 29 countries, led by the U.S., liberated Kuwait and defeated the Iraqi army.

In 2003, U.S. President George W. Bush initiated the Iraq War, justified by claims of Iraq possessing weapons of mass destruction. The invasion led to the fall of Saddam Hussein but resulted in a protracted conflict with a high human cost.

5. Economic Power

The current centers of economic power are the United States, Japan, and the European Union. These regions have higher standards of living, control global trade, and host major multinational corporations and international stock exchanges.

6. Conflicts in the World

The end of the Cold War did not bring peace. Recent years have seen numerous localized wars, primarily in the developing world, often fueled by poverty, ethnic tensions, and the ambitions of military dictators (e.g., civil wars in Congo, Liberia).

Another source of conflict is the so-called clash of civilizations. Islamic fundamentalism is an anti-Western ideology that seeks to regulate political and social life through the strict application of Islamic religious principles. In 1979, the Taliban established a fundamentalist regime in Afghanistan. Islamic fundamentalism employs terrorist methods, as exemplified by Al-Qaeda, led by Osama bin Laden.

7. Post-Communist Europe

The dissolution of the USSR in 1991 led to the emergence of 15 independent states. Inflation soared, life expectancy dropped, social inequalities increased, and a small minority gained control of privatized companies.

8. Global Challenges of the 21st Century

One of the defining characteristics of the modern world is globalization, an economic phenomenon characterized by increasing interdependence of national economies and greater global movement of goods, capital, and people.

Challenges:

  • Limited resources: Uncontrolled economic growth has led to the depletion of natural resources. Sustainable policies (use of alternative energy, resource conservation, waste recycling) are crucial to address this challenge.
  • Global poverty: The gap between the richest and poorest countries continues to widen. Over 85% of global production is consumed by 20% of the population living in wealthy countries.
  • Women’s inequality: While women in developed countries have achieved greater equality in the workplace and gained economic independence, challenges remain in achieving full gender equality globally.

9. Key Figures and Terms

  • Jordi Pujol: President of Catalonia (1980-2003).
  • ETA: Basque nationalist terrorist organization founded in 1959, active during Spain’s democratic transition.
  • European Union: International organization of European states (founded in 1992) based on the Maastricht Treaty, building on the principles of the EEC and aiming to create a political and economic bloc currently comprising 27 countries.
  • Historical memory: Movement seeking to recover the truth about the repression during the Civil War and Franco’s dictatorship, acknowledge the facts, and honor the victims.
  • New World Order: International relations system that emerged after the Cold War, characterized by the United States’ role as the sole superpower.
  • Gulf War: Refers to the two conflicts in 1991 and 2003 where Iraq, under Saddam Hussein, faced an international coalition led by the United States.
  • Islamic fundamentalism: Anti-Western ideology that seeks to regulate political and social life through the strict application of Islamic religious principles.
  • Russian Federation: The largest of the 15 states that emerged from the dissolution of the USSR in 1991.
  • Globalization: Economic phenomenon that began in the late 20th century, characterized by increasing interdependence of national economies and greater global movement of goods, capital, and people.