Spain’s 19th Century: War of Independence and Liberal Reign
The War of Independence and the Cortes of Cadiz
During the War of Independence, the Cortes of Cadiz convened. In 1802, a notification stated that Spain and France would partition Portugal. Numerous French contingents entered through the Pyrenees. However, in terms of commonality, Napoleon intended not only to occupy Portugal but all of the Iberian Peninsula. The arrival of the French in Madrid revealed Napoleon’s intentions to occupy Spanish territory. Godoy (the Prime Minister) convinced the royal family to move to Seville so that they could flee to America if necessary. The Prime Minister’s plan was considered offensive by a part of the court that considered Napoleon’s aspirations to be anti-Spanish. The Principality of Asturias and sectors of the court contrary to Godoy instigated a popular riot (the Mutiny of Aranjuez). This led to the fall of Godoy and forced Carlos IV to abdicate in favor of the Prince of Asturias, who assumed the throne as Fernando VII. Meanwhile, French troops occupied the peninsula. Faced with this picture, Napoleon clarified his plans. He called upon Carlos IV and Fernando VII and forced them to abdicate in favor of his brother, José Bonaparte. These abdications were formalized after the Statute of Bayonne, where Napoleon proclaimed José I as king. A group of illustrated courtiers offered to collaborate with the new monarch (known as the *afrancesados*). The new political situation did not consolidate. On May 2, 1808, a popular uprising occurred in Madrid. The new authorities did not accept the revolt, and on May 1, provincial juntas were arranged for defense (integrated by people from the municipalities). In the first phase of this war, the French established a plan to end the resistance. An army corps in Andalusia defeated the French troops in Bailén, which forced José I to leave Madrid. The second phase supposed French control of the territory. Napoleon, with 250,000 men, defeated the Spanish at Ocaña, achieving control and recovering Madrid. The third and final phase of the war was marked by an important British offensive. A British army disembarked in Portugal and began the long war against the French troops, whom they defeated in Salamanca. Representatives from 33 important cities moved to Cadiz (a city that had not been conquered) to draft the first constitution of the kingdom. To this end, in 1810, the General Cortes of Cadiz were convened. They enacted a series of decrees that abolished the foundations of the former regime. On March 19, 1812, the Constitution of 1812 (known as *La Pepa*) was approved.
The Liberal Regime
By 1830, Fernando VII had no male descendants (only two daughters). According to the Salic Law of 1713, women could not accede to the throne. Therefore, his successor would be his brother, Carlos María Isidro. However, Fernando VII changed the law and appointed his daughter as his heir. Upon his death, María Cristina assumed the regency for Isabel II, who was still a minor. However, supporters of the infant Carlos (intransigent absolutists) refused to accept Fernando VII’s testament and rose up against the regent, who was forced to seek support from the liberals. The first years of the regency were marked by the First Carlist War. Liberals such as Martínez de la Rosa were gaining political ground. During 1836, revolts and uprisings occurred, and the “Mutiny of La Granja” forced the regent to sign a decree that reinstated the Constitution of 1812. Although a new charter was immediately drafted, the Constitution of 1837, it included some more moderate changes (elimination of internal customs, *desamortización* of Church property, etc.). In 1833, the long civil war between the Carlists and the liberals began, ending in 1840. The Carlists confronted the regent María Cristina, who was supported by the liberals. During the First Carlist War, the Carlists became strong in the north of the peninsula thanks to General Zumalacárregui. However, his death ended the upward trend of the Carlists. From 1835, the liberal army’s victory forced Carlos to flee to France. In 1839, the Carlist general Maroto and the liberal general Espartero ended the war with the Convention of Vergara (the Embrace of Vergara). María Cristina resigned from governing in 1840, forming a regency ministry presided over by General Espartero, who governed dictatorially until 1843 without ever submitting to parliament. Espartero earned the rejection of all. A military revolt led by Narváez in 1843 brought down the government. Espartero went into exile in London. Isabel II was proclaimed of age at 13 and assumed the throne of Spain in 1843. She tasked the Moderate Party, led by Narváez, with forming a government. The Constitution of 1837 was repealed, and another was drafted in 1845, which granted more powers to the Crown and the government. In 1844, the Civil Guard was created, and in 1851, a concordat was signed with the Vatican, whereby the Church recovered many of its privileges.