Spain’s 19th Century Transformation: Politics, Society, and Economy
Theme 5: The Six-Year Democratic Period (1868-1874)
The Glorious Revolution (1868)
In January 1868, sociopolitical tensions reached a critical point. The signatories of the Pact of Ostend initiated action, leading to the September uprising in Cádiz. Local boards were formed, and from September 19, 1868, pronouncements by Prim, Serrano, and Topete, among others, spread throughout Spain. Brigadier Topete’s rebellion against Isabella II in Cádiz, under the cry of “Viva Spain with honor!” and the demand for a democratic regime, sparked a series of revolutionary uprisings. Government troops were defeated at Alcolea, forcing Isabella II into exile in France. The Glorious Revolution had succeeded.
This revolution redefined liberalism, setting limits on the existing regime and proclaiming the triumph of bourgeois civil society.
Provisional Government (1868-1870)
The first revolutionary government, chaired by Serrano with Prim as Minister of War, comprised Unionists, Progressives, and Democrats. Elections for a Constituent Assembly were swiftly convened under universal male suffrage, and a reform program was initiated. Liberals won the elections, which, though considered relatively clean for the time, were influenced by their ideology. The new constitution was adopted the following year.
The Constitution of 1869
Considered one of the most radically liberal constitutions of the 19th century, the “democratic” Constitution of 1869 had the following key features:
- National Sovereignty expressed through universal male suffrage and parliamentary democracy.
- Monarchy as the form of state, with limitations on the king’s powers. Executive power was vested in the king, to be exercised through his ministers.
- Bicameral legislative power.
- Judicial power vested in the courts.
- Extensive declaration of rights, including freedom of residence, inviolability of domicile and correspondence, freedom of education, and, for the first time, the rights of assembly and association.
- Freedom of religious worship.
Economic reforms deepened capitalism, favoring the bourgeoisie. However, numerous challenges arose, including Carlist activity in Navarre and the Basque Country, the Ten Years’ War in Cuba (1868-1878), and a high public debt.
The Reign of Amadeo I of Savoy (1871-1873)
The 1869 Constitution established a monarchy, and Serrano assumed the regency. Prim sought a new king—liberal, Catholic, and accepted by European powers. Rejecting the Bourbons, they searched among European royal families. The lack of confidence in the new regime (marked by republican insurrections) accelerated the selection process. Parliament ultimately elected Amadeo of Savoy.
Amadeo faced immediate challenges. Prim was assassinated before his arrival, weakening the new monarch’s position. Amadeo encountered stiff opposition from the aristocracy and landowners (Bourbon supporters), the Carlists, and the Republicans, who enjoyed strong popular support.
He also confronted conflicts outside the system, such as Carlist insurrections and the ongoing war in Cuba. In the summer of 1872, federalist republican insurrections, influenced by socialism, broke out (e.g., El Ferrol). Republicans organized meetings throughout the country, and instability prevailed. Division and disagreement were widespread, particularly regarding the abolition of slavery, which Unionists and conservative groups opposed.
Given these difficulties, Serrano proposed abolishing constitutional guarantees, a measure the king rejected. The system’s inability to dissolve the coalition government led to Amadeo’s abdication in February 1873.
The First Republic (February 1873 – January 1874)
The First Republic was proclaimed upon Amadeo’s resignation and overwhelmingly endorsed by the Cortes, but with limited public support. Monarchists voted in favor, anticipating its rapid decline. External problems (Cuba, Carlism) and elite opposition persisted.
The situation was chaotic: a financial crisis, an agricultural crisis (with riots, lynchings, and land occupations in Andalusia), and the emergence of revolutionary committees in Catalonia.
The Federal Democratic Republican Party, led by Pi i Margall, aligned with republican ideals. Their ideology advocated a republican form of government, agreements between regions, secularism, expanded democratic rights, improved working conditions, and support for the petty bourgeoisie and workers.
The first government, led by Figueras, was among the more moderate republican leaders. Most Republican leaders upheld legality and sought to hold Constituent Assembly elections. These elections, held in June 1873, aimed to establish a federal republic. The 1873 Constitution, though never published, defined a federal state comprising 17 states and several overseas territories. It was similar to the 1869 Constitution, with a federal organization and recognition of 15 federal states, plus Cuba and Puerto Rico.
The development of the Republican state faced difficulties, including the Carlist offensive in July and the escalating conflict in Cuba. Most serious were the cantonal uprisings for independence. During June and July, under Pi i Margall’s leadership, a period of radical federalism, or “federalism from below,” ensued. Uprisings occurred (Cartagena, Malaga, Cadiz, Seville, Almansa, etc.) with popular support and without government reaction. Pi i Margall resigned to avoid repression. Nicolás Salmerón took military action to suppress the Cartagena uprising.
Castelar, more conservative and authoritarian-leaning, faced a censure motion on January 3, 1874, and attempted to form a center-left government. Conservative forces, however, supported General Pavia’s coup, establishing an emergency government. It’s worth noting some radical reforms enacted by Republican governments: abolition of consumer taxes, reduction of military conscription, lowering the voting age to 21, separation of church and state, regulation of child labor, and abolition of slavery in Cuba and Puerto Rico.
The Alfonsine conspiracy ultimately triumphed with Martínez Campos’s pronouncement in Sagunto.
Agriculture, Industry, and Transport in the 19th Century: From Estates to Class Society
Population
Spain experienced slow population growth in the 19th century, contrasting with other European countries. High birth and mortality rates resulted in a life expectancy of less than 35 years due to subsistence crises and periodic epidemics. Migration from northern and inland regions (except Madrid) to Mediterranean and southern Atlantic areas was encouraged. The rural exodus became significant, and Spain remained within the old demographic regime.
- The government aimed to connect the center with the coast and borders.
- Companies sought to connect raw material production areas with ports.
Trade policy was protectionist. The financial sector faced difficulties with the State Treasury and public debt. Despite these problems, historic decisions were made.
Transport
Spain’s rugged geography made a robust internal communication network essential. The 19th century brought the need to expand road and maritime transport. Improvements in navigation, ships, and ports connected Spain with global trends, though growth remained negligible compared to Europe. The major development was the construction of the railway network, an indicator of industrialization. Before 1855, existing sections were short and insufficient. The 1855 Railways Act marked a turning point. However, the political situation between 1865 and 1868 halted expansion, bankrupting many companies.
Society
The defining characteristic of this period was the disappearance of the estate-based society and its replacement by a class society based on property rights and equality before the law. This allowed for greater social mobility. A new dominant social group emerged, composed of the gentry (Catalan textile entrepreneurs, etc.), the oligarchy (large landowners), and high-ranking state and army officials. Numerous non-urban middle classes (officials, doctors, etc.) also emerged. The peasant population constituted the majority of the country’s population.
Labor Movement
In 1864, the International Workingmen’s Association (IWA) was founded, attracting followers of Karl Marx (Marxists or socialists) and Mikhail Bakunin (anarchists). The freedoms ushered in by the Glorious Revolution allowed for the creation of the Spanish Section of the IWA by Paul Lafargue. Lafargue came to Spain to spread Marxism. In 1872, a small group formed in Madrid that would later lead to the creation of the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party) by Pablo Iglesias.