Spain’s 19th Century Political Turmoil (1788–1868)
Charles IV: The End of the Bourbon Monarchy (1788–1808)
Charles IV’s reign was characterized by the political influence of his favorite, Manuel Godoy. In 1807, the Treaty of Fontainebleau was signed, granting Napoleon permission to enter Spain to invade Portugal. However, French troops expanded their presence into major Spanish cities, leading the Spanish population to realize they were being invaded.
As a result, the Mutiny of Aranjuez occurred in 1808. The population marched to the palace to protest and subsequently kidnapped Godoy. They demanded:
- The withdrawal of French troops.
- The dismissal of Godoy.
- The abdication of Charles IV.
Charles IV abdicated, appointing his son, Ferdinand VII, as king. All demands were met except for the withdrawal of French troops. A clash ensued between Charles IV and Ferdinand VII. To avoid civil war, Napoleon convened both monarchs in Bayonne. Acting as an arbiter, Napoleon secured the cession of the crown from both Charles IV and Ferdinand VII, giving it instead to his brother, Joseph I.
Joseph I was proclaimed King of Spain. Napoleon granted Spain the Statute of Bayonne, a charter that contained both liberal and absolutist aspects. The conflict escalated, leading to the War of Independence, which began on May 2, 1808.
The Spanish War of Independence (1808–1814)
The Patriots (National Resistance)
The Patriots refused to recognize Joseph I, considering Ferdinand VII their legitimate king. Since Ferdinand was absent, they established their own governing bodies:
- Local and Provincial Juntas.
- A Council of Regency.
- The Supreme Central Board (Junta Central Suprema).
The resistance relied on militias, where civilians became soldiers, known as partidas (units). They employed effective guerrilla tactics. The Patriots drafted a new constitution (the Constitution of Cádiz, 1812) which established:
- National sovereignty.
- Separation of powers.
- Census suffrage.
- Equality before the law and individual rights.
- Freedom of the press and trade.
The constitution abolished the Inquisition but established Catholicism as the sole religion.
The Battle of Bailén (1808) marked the beginning of the decline of Napoleon’s imperial power. As a result, Napoleon had to personally intervene in Spain to control the situation. By the end of 1812, a coalition of Spanish, Portuguese, and English forces began pushing back the French. Key final battles included Arapiles (1813), San Marcial, and Vitoria. An agreement was signed establishing the withdrawal of French troops.
The Pro-French (Afrancesados)
The Pro-French faction recognized Joseph I as king. They relied on Napoleon’s army and were governed according to the principles laid out in the Statute of Bayonne.
The Reign of Isabel II (1833–1868)
Regency of María Cristina (1833–1840)
The government was initially established by the Royal Statute of 1834. Progressives deemed this insufficient, leading to the drafting of the Constitution of 1837. This period saw the outbreak of the First Carlist War.
In 1836, Juan Álvarez Mendizábal initiated the process of secular disentailment (desamortización) of unused church lands, which were then auctioned off to raise money for the state. The current division of Spanish provinces was performed in 1833 by Javier de Burgos.
Regency of General Espartero (1840–1843)
The Convention of Vergara ended the First Carlist War, and General Espartero was granted the title Prince of Vergara. Espartero issued a pronouncement that forced María Cristina into exile. Espartero assumed the regency in 1840. The Constitution of 1837 remained in force, but Espartero governed with a dictatorial style. A military pronouncement eventually forced him into exile.
First Moderate Government (1843–1854)
This period began with a pronouncement by Generals Prim, Serrano, and Narváez. They created the Constitution of 1845, which featured:
- Shared sovereignty (Crown and Cortes).
- Limitation of individual rights.
- Limited census suffrage.
- Administrative centralism.
In 1846, Isabel II married Francisco de Asís. Key developments included the creation of the Guardia Civil (Civil Guard) in 1844, the signing of a Concordat with the Holy See in 1851, and the establishment of the Canal de Isabel II (water infrastructure).
The Progressive Biennium (1854–1856)
The Vicalvarada, a military pronouncement led by O’Donnell, ushered in this period. A Progressive Constitution was developed (though never enacted), and Espartero led a liberal government. This period saw the Second Disentailment Law (Madoz Law) adopted in 1855, alongside the passage of the Railway Law. The government fell in 1856, with O’Donnell gaining power over Espartero. This era also saw the creation of the law governing issuing banks and credit societies, and the founding of the Bank of Spain.
Second Moderate Government (1856–1868)
This period began with a coup led by Narváez. Narváez and O’Donnell governed under the Constitution of 1845. The Liberal Union party was founded, composed of liberals, democrats, republicans, socialists, and anarchist groups.
In 1866, the Pact of Ostend was reached by all political parties except the Moderates, aiming to overthrow the Queen. A military coup occurred in 1868, leading to the exile of Isabel II. During this time, colonial campaigns were carried out, and the expansion (Ensanche) of Madrid was implemented.